In conditions market economy the level of wages, its functions and principles of organization are influenced by the following groups of factors: production, social, market, institutional (Fig. 1.3). All these factors are interconnected and together determine the amount of wages, production costs and the well-being of the whole society and representatives of various social groups.

Production factors

The main production factor that determines the amount of wages is the level of development of production and technical progress. Thus, in developed countries high level wages due to high labor productivity and the use of modern technologies production. Technological progress leads to the use of labor-replacing and labor-saving technologies, an increase in labor productivity, an increase in output and, accordingly, an increase in wages.

Technical progress, the production need to improve product quality and expand the functions of the contractor lead to greater complexity of labor and higher qualification requirements for workers. The operation of modern technology involves greater labor intensity and makes increased demands on the cognitive and emotional-volitional processes of the employee - the distribution, switching, concentration and stability of attention, the speed and accuracy of work, the speed of decision-making, which leads to fatigue, a temporary decrease in efficiency and requires significant funds to restore the cost of nervous energy.

Rice. 1.3.

Changes in the complexity of work involve the use of more skilled workers with a corresponding increase in the level of their pay. The essence of the organization of remuneration in these conditions is to adequately assess the complexity of labor and the qualifications of workers and, depending on this, choose the form and system of remuneration that takes into account the features of the technological process and the individual contribution of the contractor to the maximum extent.

Working conditions are a combination of factors production environment and the labor process, which affect the health and performance of a person in the labor process, costs and results of labor. According to the content, production and environmental (temperature, humidity, noise, illumination, etc.), organizational and technical (rate, content of technological operations, ergonomic and aesthetic conditions) and socio-economic (relationships in the team, the presence of production and interpersonal conflicts) conditions are distinguished labor. According to the degree of impact on the body of an employee - comfortable, permissible, harmful (unfavorable) and extreme (traumatic) working conditions.

Working conditions and production environment depend on the applied equipment and technologies, organization labor processes, psychophysiological and socio-psychological compatibility of workers. Improvement of working conditions contributes to high efficiency, reduction of loss of working time due to illness and injury, reduction of surcharges for harmful conditions labor and production risk.

The salary change is related to results (manufacturer n awn) labor. It is necessary to analyze due to what factors there is an increase in labor productivity, its relationship with the intensity of labor, the amount of time worked, the complexity of labor and the qualifications of workers.

Quality of work- this is the quality of products and the implementation of the labor process.

Social factors also affect the level of wages, so it is necessary to take into account the mentality of the population, ideas about social justice when introducing social guarantees and social protection population.

Living wage- this is the cost of the minimum necessary set of means of life for a person, goods that allow him to maintain life.

Consumer basket represents the minimum set of products, goods and services that is required for human life. The consumer basket is established for Russia as a whole and for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and is used to calculate the subsistence minimum.

The structure of the consumer basket consists of three parts: food, non-food products and services. The volume of consumption is calculated on average per person for each of the main socio-demographic groups of the population, such as the working-age population, children and pensioners.

In the conditions of market relations, an increase in the subsistence minimum and an expansion of the structure of the consumer basket lead to an increase in the purchasing power of the population and the wage rate.

Minimum wage acts as a state guarantee in the field of wages.

Increasing the share of "social wages"(regular payments for a child, guarantees provided by the state, region, employer) in the total income of an employee acts as a factor restraining the amount of wages.

Conditions labor mobility provide an opportunity for individuals and social groups move, move to other regions, which increases their competitiveness in the labor market and wages. At the state level, labor movements are due to a mismatch between the distribution labor resources according to the areas of application of labor and the requirements of production or the employee. At the level of an enterprise or organization, the cause of labor movements is the discrepancy between the needs, motives, interests of the employee and the requirements placed on him.

Market factors affect the size and regulation of wages and depend on the level of development of the labor market.

Reaching high employment rate is one of the main goals of the macroeconomic policy of the state. An economic system that creates an additional number of jobs aims to increase the amount of the social product and thereby satisfy the material needs of the population to a greater extent. With incomplete use of available labor resources, the economic system functions without reaching the frontier of its production possibilities.

The labor market is one of the most important conditions of the market mechanism. It allows you to effectively use the labor potential of employees, creates competition for workplace, contributes to the growth of staff qualifications and reduce their turnover. Also, the labor market increases the mobility of personnel and promotes the spread of various forms of employment.

In Art. 1 of the Law of the Russian Federation of April 19, 1991 No. 1032-1 "On employment in Russian Federation"Employment is defined as "the activity of citizens related to the satisfaction of personal and social needs, which does not contradict the legislation of the Russian Federation and, as a rule, brings them earnings, labor income." The main features of employment are:

availability of labor and socially useful activities;

• - legality of this activity;
• - the presence, as a rule, of income (although there may not be income, for example, for students of a full-time university).

Employment management implies a targeted impact on the labor market, expanding the demand for labor, ensuring a balance between the demand and supply of labor in various sectors and sectors of the economy, which involves the allocation of the main types of employment.

Employment rate and fluctuations in labor supply and demand, i.e. market conditions are closely interrelated due to the inflexibility of wages due to the influence of institutional factors (for example, contractual regulation of wage conditions, trade union activities, etc.). The demand for labor in the labor market is derived from the demand for goods and services. Thus, a decrease in demand for certain professions and types of work leads to a decrease in the non-guaranteed flexible part of wages for the relevant workers and has a downward effect on job security.

Longevity established in employment contract working conditions and a firm's focus on wages offered by competitors help to limit the impact of lower labor demand on wages. Excess demand in the labor market for certain categories of workers, respectively, leads to an increase in the wage rate.

Cost of production for labor also act as one of the market factors that determine the amount of wages. On the one hand, the employer is interested in cheap labor, and on the other hand, the level of development of technology, modern equipment, the complexity of labor place high demands on the contractor, his qualifications, labor skills, which increases production costs.

for the labor force. In addition, the influence of social and institutional factors also hinders the reduction of these costs. But at the same time, the high share of labor costs in total production costs restrains the growth of real wages, if it is not accompanied by a decrease in its unit costs per unit (ruble) of output.

Dynamics of prices for consumer goods and services, as well as inflation expectations of employees(expectations of the expected level of inflation in the future period due to the factors of the current period) is also a market factor affecting the level of nominal and real wages, since the real and expected increase in the cost of living increases the "price" of the reproduction minimum in the wage rate, which is reflected in ce level, purchasing power, on its mass and share in costs, on its unit costs per ruble of production.

Institutional factors(from lat. institutio - directions, instructions) are associated with the management and regulation of various spheres of economic and social relations. They determine the volume, directions and methods of state and regional economic regulation in the organization of wages. These include: the activities of trade unions, associations of employers on contractual regulation of wage conditions, the development and formalization of the system of social partnership.

The considered groups of factors have an impact on the level of commemorative and real wages, the ratio of growth rates of labor productivity and production costs, the validity of wage differentiation in various fields and industries.

• Life safety / ed. V. M. Maslova. M., 2014. S. 77.
• URL: center-yf.ru/data/economy/Potrebitelskaya-kor2ina.php.

1

The remuneration of education workers in Russia has been a serious problem for many years. Carrying out reforms and changing the wage system does not lead to an increase in its average level, and Russian teachers remain a socially unprotected layer of society, while in the leading European countries the teaching profession is considered one of the most prestigious and profitable. Due to low wages, teachers are forced to look for an additional source of income "on the side", which often leads to a decrease in the contribution to the main job. An analysis of salaries in recent years provides a rough estimate of the state of the educational sector in Russia, in the regions and at the local level. The identified reasons for the discrepancy between the salaries of teachers and their real contribution to the work will make it possible to propose measures to improve the system of remuneration of workers in the field of education.

salary

educational institutions

teachers

1. Official website of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://minobrnauki.rf (date of access: 05/01/2017).

2. EUROMAG. Everything about Europe [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.euromag.ru/ (date of access: 05/01/2017).

3. Official website of the Federal State Statistics Service [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.gks.ru/ (date of access: 05/01/2017).

4. Inflation rate in the Russian Federation [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://inflation-level.rf (date of access: 05/01/2017).

5. Krasova E.V. The labor potential of the Far East in the system economic development and strengthening the national security of Russia // National Security / Nota Bene. - 2016. - No. 6. - S. 720-729.

6. Gusyatnikova A.G., Medushovskaya I.E. Analysis of the modern system of remuneration in a municipal educational institution // Scientific and methodological electronic journal"Concept". - 2015. - No. 13. - P. 946–950.

7. Pengfei L., Krasova E.V. Modern tendencies development of the Chinese education system // Territory of new opportunities. Bulletin of the Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service. - 2012. - No. 1. - P. 22–33.

At present, the salary of employees of educational institutions and the public sector as a whole plays an important role in the formation and development of the state economy, and also sets the level of well-being of the population. Remuneration has a greater impact on labor productivity in general, which, in turn, has an impact on the final result. economic activity institutions.

The chosen topic is relevant now, as it reflects the financial situation of employees of educational institutions after a series of reforms to increase wages.

The object and base of the study is the system of remuneration of educational institutions of the Russian Federation.

The purpose of the study is to analyze the wage fund of educational institutions and identify the causes of deviations in the wages of educators at the international, federal, regional and local levels, as well as to propose measures to improve the wage system for teachers.

The study used statistical data on the wage fund in the subjects of the Russian Federation, European countries. The analysis makes it possible to objectively assess the current situation in the field of education and propose measures to improve the system of remuneration of employees of educational institutions.

During the study, measures will be proposed to improve the system of remuneration of workers in the field of education, who can find practical use both in a particular educational institution and be used at different levels of management.

In the socio-economic life of society, wages play an important role, since they serve as personal income as the main material source of livelihood for workers and their families, and also as an aggregate payment demand - one of the factors in maintaining and developing production.

The amount of wages is influenced by numerous factors that can be divided into external and internal.

External factors include:

labor law;

State regulation of the labor market;

The minimum wage;

Tax system of regulation of wages;

Economic and political situation in the country;

Labor mobility.

Internal factors include the following positions:

The employee's education, qualifications, experience, availability of a category;

Financial position of the organization (institution);

Discrimination;

Differentiation;

Provision of additional paid services of the institution, the income from which may be included in the wage fund.

According to the method of formation, the wage fund system consists of the following parts:

The main wage fund of employees;

Compensation Fund;

Incentive Fund.

At present, the question of the level of wages of employees of educational institutions is in the center of attention not only in Russia, but also in many European countries. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development annually provides data on the annual salaries of teachers with at least 15 years of work experience. Data on the level of wages in European countries, including Russia, for 2016 are presented in Table. one.

Based on the data in Table. 1, we can conclude that the level of wages of an educator is significantly lower than in the leading European countries.

The table shows that Luxembourg and Germany are the leaders in terms of teacher salaries. True, it is important to take into account not only the size of the salary, but also the number of working hours. For example, in the UK, teachers spend an average of 684 hours per year in the classroom, while in France they spend 936 hours per year.

In most European countries, the minimum wage for teachers in public schools is negotiated by the authorities. For example, in Germany the salaries of teachers are set by regional authorities, and in Spain - partly by the state and municipalities. In Sweden and Finland, the minimum wage for teachers is negotiated between representatives of the education system and trade unions.

Table 1

The level of wages in European countries as of 01.01.2017

The salary of a teacher abroad usually also depends on the length of service. So, in Ireland, Cyprus, Hungary and Austria, the salary of a teacher with a long work experience (from 15 to 35 years) can be twice as high as the initial salary. In turn, the lowest difference in the salary of experienced teachers and beginners - only 4% - is noted in Latvia.

Teachers can receive individual salary supplements for good performance, for professional development, participation in extracurricular activities, or for teaching children with special needs in a standard school class.

As for non-European countries, such as China, which is building an education system of international level, the main reason for the rapid development of education is a significant increase in investment. Since 2010, about half a trillion yuan has been allocated for education, and the salaries of teachers at leading Chinese universities are quite competitive with universities in the United States and European countries.

In Russia, as of September 1 of each year, an educational institution draws up a tariff list in which the monthly salary of each student is calculated. teacher. Any changes related to wages (changes in workload, incentive payments, increase in base salary, etc.) are formalized by order for the school and are indicated in additional agreements that are made for each employee.

Wage teacher is formed from several components. The official salary of teachers is calculated on the basis of the base salary (depending on the position), to which multiplying factors are applied (for the qualification category, for the specifics of work in institutions, for length of service). To official salary the amount of compensation payments and additional payments is added, which are established for: combining professions, harmful working conditions, checking notebooks, class management, etc., as well as the amount of incentive payments (educational achievements of students, prizes in olympiads, results of the Unified State Exam and the Unified State Examination, in extracurricular activities, etc.). These payments are established by the institution independently on the basis of the developed provisions of this institution.

Thus, the system of remuneration of workers in the educational sector in Russia largely converges with European standards aimed at raising the level of wages as the length of service increases. However, the initial salary set in the institution most often does not exceed the minimum wage, which in turn in the developed countries of Europe largely exceeds the Russian minimum. All this leads to a significant difference in the levels of remuneration of teachers.

For a comparative analysis of the wages of education workers in the Russian Federation, it is necessary to use the open statistical data presented in Table. 2. For comparison with the all-Russian level, the indicators of Primorsky Krai were taken as an example.

table 2

Comparative analysis average wages of workers in the sphere general education for 2014-2016, rub.

As can be seen from Table. 2, the average salary of teaching staff in the Russian Federation has not changed much over the past three years. For three years, the upward change amounted to 1,066 rubles, or 3.77% with inflation of 29.65%. In the Far Eastern Federal District, wages increased by 1,866 rubles, or 4.26%. In Primorsky Krai, wage growth did not even amount to 1,000 rubles.

In the Far Eastern Federal District, the salary level of teachers is much higher than the federal level. Such an excess can be attributed to the area and compensation payments to workers. A similar situation is developing in Primorsky Krai.

The low level of remuneration entails consequences such as the reluctance of teachers to provide students with decent knowledge, preferring to earn money "on the side".

The main problems with the implementation of the remuneration system today are the lack of a clear understanding of the educational workers of the performance criteria. It is necessary to comply with the principles set forth in the Uniform Recommendations for the Establishment of Remuneration Systems for Employees of State and Municipal Institutions at the Federal, Regional and Local Levels: objectivity, predictability, adequacy, timeliness, transparency.

The incentive system, reflected in local regulations, should reflect criteria that are not included in the main responsibilities of teachers. First of all, teachers should focus on the quality of the services provided, and only then on the quantity.

Currently, teachers are not interested in the result of their main activity, aimed at providing a high level of knowledge to students, as they prefer additional income, where there is often less workload and more attractive remuneration. Therefore, it is worth paying attention to increasing the level of the initial salary, then to the size of the increasing coefficients, which will allow teachers to provide decent knowledge to students, receiving decent pay. The certification of the teaching staff should be carried out in accordance with the regulations, since today it is rather formal in nature, leading mainly to corruption.

But do not forget that the leading role in raising the wages of educators is given to the Government of the Russian Federation. It is the Government that should eliminate the disproportion in the wages of teachers in the country as a whole. It is necessary to establish the maximum level of wages at the federal, regional and local levels.

It should not be forgotten that Russia in many respects lags behind the leading European countries in terms of the wages of educators, which makes Russian teachers a socially unprotected layer of society, and the wages of educators are lower than the average wage in the country. The most effective approach to the formation of the labor potential of the future is the optimal combination of the indicated options to the extent that this is dictated by the specifics of the development of the situation and the effectiveness of state policy.

In order for the level of wages of educators in Russia to approach the level of leading European countries, it is necessary to take the following measures:

Raise the salaries of teachers to the level of the average salary in the country;

Introduce a minimum hourly wage for teachers;

Make incentive payments based on the results of certification;

Develop systems of incentive payments that are fair for all employees, which will be focused on improving performance, and will also be developed collegially, taking into account the specifics of each teacher's activities.

And the educational institution itself should take care of worthy incentives for the remuneration of its employees. For these purposes, it is necessary to introduce additional paid services, through which incentive and incentive payments will be made for employees who were directly involved in the provision of various kinds of paid services. Opportunity to explore additional funds you can use the search for sponsors and patrons, due to which it will be possible to increase wages.

The proposed measures should improve the efficiency of the wage system in educational institutions.

Bibliographic link

Bezzhovcheva D.O. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE WAGES OF EMPLOYEES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN RUSSIA AND OTHER COUNTRIES // International Journal of Applied and fundamental research. - 2017. - No. 6-2. – S. 297-300;
URL: https://applied-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=11673 (accessed 30.10.2019). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"

The important role of education in economic development has been recognized for a long time. This role manifests itself at different levels. On the one hand, education affects a person's future income. There are many studies showing the positive impact of education on a person's salary. On the other hand, at the societal level, a more educated workforce increases productivity. human capital. In addition, it is obvious huge benefits for society in improving the overall level of education, not only because of the improvement in the quality of the labor force, but also because there are other positive effects - in the field of health, nutrition and the environment. In addition, educated citizens are more effective participants in a democratic civil society.

One of the key scientific problems is the study of the influence of the level of education on the rate of economic growth. The modern economy offers many theories and models that link education to economic growth. The direct impact of education on economic growth is expressed in the improvement of human capital. However, an indirect impact can be expressed in the improvement of other indicators. For example, the impact of education on the micro and macro levels can be described by the following diagram (Figure 1).

The main state economic instrument for regulating processes in the field of education is budget expenditures. There has long been controversy over the effectiveness of spending on education. Some studies classify spending on education as unproductive, meaning that it does not affect productivity and therefore economic growth. Many studies, in turn, have shown that the relationship between public spending on education and educational outcomes is weak. At the same time, the quality of education is strongly related to such indicators as per capita income, age distribution of the population, etc. Finally, some scientists classify education spending as productive. Subsequently, this point of view was confirmed in many works, and was also accepted by the World Bank when determining indicators of the results of social development, and now it is practically not disputed.

Figure 1 - Micro- and macro-level of the impact of education on economic growth

In neoclassical economic theory, education is viewed as an investment capable of generating a stream of future income. Thus, the evaluation of the effectiveness of investments in education is based on a comparison of the cost of education with the income that they will subsequently bring. It is important to understand that when assessing the costs of education, it is necessary to take into account not only direct costs, but also "lost profits", which are expressed in the possible earnings of an individual, which he could receive if he went to work instead of studying. In relation to education, the cost of lost opportunities will be the income that is lost as a result of the decision to continue studies.

Thus, a suitable measure of the economic impact of education is the net present value (NPV). However, when trying to calculate this indicator in practice, difficulties arise, for example, with the determination of the discount rate.

An alternative tool for assessing investment in education is the rate of return on investment in education (Rate of Return to Education (RORE)). By analogy, it can be considered as an internal rate of return, that is, such a rate at which the present value of future income is equal to the present value of its costs. However, for education, this approach is difficult to apply, since the cost of education is not always amenable to direct calculation. Therefore, RORE can be estimated through regression equations. For example, J. Mintser proposed the following model of the dependence of the level of wages on the level of education:

where lnW i is the natural logarithm of the salary of the i-th person;

S i - number of years of study;

X i – years of practical activity;

ε i – random deviation.

Since the proportional increase in income caused by additional years of schooling is constant throughout life, the coefficient β 1 can be interpreted as the rate of return on investment in education. The model also includes a square term (work experience) to account for on-the-job learning.

The presented model has been extensively studied in various works. As a result, the rates of return on education for most countries of the world were calculated. The data confirm lower rates of return in more developed countries and higher ones in developing ones. The average rate of return is 7 with a standard deviation of 2.2. For example, the rate of return for the United States was estimated at 12.

In the above model, the number of years of education is used as a factor. Thus, it is assumed that the year of study provides the same amount of knowledge and skills, regardless of the education system. Of course it is not. Neglect of the qualitative characteristics of education is a shortcoming of the above model.

However, the main drawback of the model is that it fails to take into account the social return on investment in education. Social or societal returns may be higher if the increase in education results in technological advances or positive social effects such as reduced crime, unemployment, and so on. On the other hand, the social return on investment in education may be lower if education is only a status attribute or when the rate of return on physical capital is higher than the rate of return on human capital. In this case, increasing education can lead to misallocation of resources and lower social effects. To prove this, consider the following example.

Suppose a person with a certain level of education decides to get additional education in order to qualify for a higher income. In this case, the rest of the labor market participants will be forced to do the same in order to remain in a relatively good position. As a result, we have a zero-sum game, that is, in the long run, other things being equal, the incomes of these market participants will not change, and the demands on the labor force from employers will increase. Since all workers enter into a kind of race for education, this phenomenon has been called the “educational spiral”. However, society benefits from such a “race”, as human capital becomes better, and labor productivity grows. In the considered example, we can talk about the lack of cost recovery in education for individuals and the presence of social payback.

In addition, a situation is possible when the demand for education is created not by economic needs, but by the desire of individuals to improve their social status. In this case, the results of education, as a rule, are not involved in the economy (and are indifferent in relation to labor productivity). This situation leads to an unjustified expenditure of resources. At the same time, as a result, there is no individual and social return on investment in education.

It is significant that the last example, despite the fact that it was described in foreign literature, is very similar to what is happening today in Russia. The general "graduation" to obtain a certain status leads to the depreciation of education up to higher education. At the same time, it is obvious that in the long term, “pseudo-candidates” and “pseudo-doctors” will not receive significant advantages in society compared to other citizens, since, in addition to status, there is another important factor that cannot yet be taken into account in such models - the personal abilities of the individual. And therefore, as long as the desire for status prevails over the desire to realize one's abilities, the situation is unlikely to change.

Literature:

1. Barro, R.J., 1991, Economic growth in a cross section of countries, Quarterly Journal of Economics 106, 407-444.

2. Chu, Ke-young, and others. (1995). Unproductive Public Expenditures: A Pragmatic Approach to Policy Analysis, IMF Pamphlet Series, no. 48 (Washington: International Monetary Fund).

3. Flug, Karnit, Antonio Spilimbergo, and Erik Wachtenheim (1998). Investment in Education: Do Economic Volatility and Credit Constraints Matter? Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 55 (April), pp. 465-481.

4. Grier, K. and Tullock G., 1989, An empirical analysis of cross-national economic growth, 1951-1980, Journal of Monetary Economics 24, 259-276.

5. Kormendi, R.C. and P.G. Meguire, 1985, Macroeconomic determinants of growth: Cross-country evidence, Journal of Monetary Economics 16, 141-164.

6. Krueger, A. and M. Lindahl, 2001. Education for Growth: Why and For Whom? Journal of Economic Literature, 39: 1101-1136.

7. Landau, Daniel (1986). Government and Economic Growth in the Less Developed Countries: An Empirical Study for 1960-80. Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 35, no. 1 (October), pp. 35-75.

8. Mincer, J. (1974): Schooling, Experience, and Earnings, New York: NBER Press.

9. Mingat, Alain, and Jee-Peng Tan (1992). Education in Asia: A Comparative Study of Cost and Financing (Washington: World Bank).

10. Mingat, Alain, and Jee-Peng Tan (1998). The Mechanics of Progress in Education: Evidence from Cross-Country Data. Policy Research Working Paper No. 2015 (Washington: World Bank).

11. Noss, Andrew (1991). Education and Adjustment: A Review of the Literature. PRE Working Paper WPS 701 (Washington: World Bank).

12. Psacharapoulos G. 1985. Returns to Education: A Further International Update and Implications. Journal of Human Resources, 20(4).

13. Psacharapoulos G., and H.A. Patrinos, 2002. Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, no. 2881.

14. Psacharapoulos, G. 1994. Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Update. World Development, 22(9):1325-1343.

15. Summers, R. and A. Heston, 1988, A new set of international comparisons of real product and price levels: Estimates for 130 countries, Review of Income and Wealth 34, 1-25.

16. Tanzi, Vito, and Ke-young Chu, eds. (1998). Income Distribution and High-Quality Growth (Cambridge: MIT Press).

"Travkin Pavel Viktorovich The impact of additional professional training on the wages of workers Specialty 08.00.05 - Economics and management of the national economy ..."

-- [ Page 1 ] --

Federal State Autonomous Educational

institution of higher professional education

"National Research University

"High School of Economics""

As a manuscript

Travkin Pavel Viktorovich

The impact of additional vocational training on

employees' wages

Specialty 08.00.05 - Economics and management of the national

economy (labor economics)

THESIS

for a degree

supervisor PhD in Economics

Associate Professor Roshchin S.Yu.

Moscow 2014 Contents Introduction

Chapter 1. Economic analysis additional vocational training

1.1. Additional professional education: concept and types 17

1.2. Theoretical aspects the impact of additional vocational training on labor productivity and wages

1.3. Econometric problems of evaluating the return on additional professional training

1.4. Research on continuing professional education in Russia

Chapter 2 Additional vocational training for Russian enterprises

2.1. Scale of additional vocational training in different countries

2.2. Dynamics of vocational training in Russia

2.3. Demand for skills of workers from Russian enterprises and additional vocational training .............................. 54

2.4. Factors influencing the scale of additional vocational training in Russian enterprises .............................. 70

2.5. Scales of learning: results of regression analysis ........ 75 Chapter 3 Assessment of the impact of additional vocational training on employees' wages

3.1. Modeling the impact of additional training on employee wages

3.2. Methodology for econometric analysis of additional vocational training on wages of employees... 102

3.3. Empirical assessments of the impact of additional vocational training on the wages of Russian workers

3.3.1. Data and descriptive analysis

3.3.2. Evaluation of the impact of additional training on wages - the OLS model and the method of double difference of differences...... 119 3.3.3. Assessing the impact of additional training on wages - a quantile regression model

3.4. Implications for public policy

Bibliography

Applications

Annex A

Annex B

Annex B

Introduction Relevance Technological progress entails a change in the requirements for employee competencies, which stimulate continuous improvement of knowledge and skills throughout the career. At a new place of employment, new knowledge and skills related to professional activities are acquired. Gaining this knowledge can be through observation of more experienced colleagues and through mentoring. At the same time, companies can send their employees to formal training courses, such as special trainings, seminars, etc. Employers expect that thanks to the courses, the employee will quickly adapt to a new workplace and achieve their maximum productivity.

In addition, not only new, but also experienced employees are trained.

Why do companies invest in staff training?

Due to the fact that in the modern world technology is constantly evolving, employers are forced to adapt to changing circumstances. The problem of the shortage of qualified workers is increasingly associated not so much with the conditions on the labor market (salary, social package, prestige of the profession and place of work), but with the limited possibilities of the vocational education system. To solve this problem, companies invest in training new knowledge and skills of their employees and thereby improve their skills.

As a return on investment, firms expect to gain increased competitiveness in the market for goods and services.

In developed countries (in particular, members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development - OECD), employers are actively investing in the development of the human capital of workers.

According to a World Bank study, more than half of companies in these countries provide additional training to employees in one form or another. There are reasons to believe that the situation in Russia is different. According to studies1, the level of investment in continuing education in Russia is much lower. The difference can be explained by the fact that employers do not see the point in such investments, since it is easier to lure an employee with the right qualifications than to train their own. In addition, in Russia there is a problem of high mobility of workers, which makes firms not sure that they will receive a return on investment in the future. The question arises: is investment in human capital a good investment in Russia? Do they benefit companies? Or such investments are expedient only in case of extreme production necessity? After all, additional professional training is beneficial not only for the company, but also for the employees themselves, since it increases their human capital. Does training increase labor productivity and, consequently, wages? If there is a positive effect from training for an employee in the form of wage growth, then it can be assumed that the company also received a positive effect in the form of an increase in labor productivity. Confirmation of the impact of additional training on wages would mean the presence of such an impact Russian worker: education, profession, qualification / ed. V. Gimpelson, R. Kapelyushnikov. M.: Ed. GU HSE house, 2011.

and on the increase in the productivity of the employee, that is, the rationale for the benefits of investing in the human capital of their employees and for the employer.

In order to correctly interpret the obtained estimates of the impact of additional vocational training on the wages of employees and formulate recommendations for public policy, we will analyze the involvement of employees in the training process at enterprises in Russia. The analysis is aimed at obtaining information about which enterprises are engaged in employee training, which employees are trained, and what skills and competencies this training is aimed at developing.

The study of these issues is important in terms of the comparability of the expected results with the estimates obtained in previous studies.

The degree of development of the problem

The topic of returns from additional professional education is quite popular abroad. In modern economic research, the topic of return on additional professional training has an established research tradition. A number of works are devoted to this topic based on data from different countries and considering the problem both from the point of view of the employer and employee, and from the point of view of society.

Researchers consider additional professional training as part of a comprehensive lifelong learning approach and analyze the impact of additional training on worker mobility, reducing unemployment, smoothing economic inequalities, economic growth and much more. However, first of all, additional vocational training affects the improvement of knowledge and skills that are in demand at work, and, consequently, an increase in labor productivity. An increase in labor productivity leads to an increase in wages if the employer does not want to lose a trained employee.

Let us consider the main studies devoted to the analysis of this relationship.

The fundamental work belongs to G. Becker, who explained at whose expense additional vocational training should be financed by determining the return on investment in general or specific human capital. Thus, investments in specific human capital benefit mainly the current employer (since the employee acquires knowledge and skills that are useful only at the current place of work), so the employer should participate in financing such training. While the investment in general human capital must be paid by the employee himself, since the benefits of such training may be in other places of work.

Subsequent studies by such authors as D. Acemoglu, J. Piske, E. Katz, E. Ziderman and others showed that G. Becker's assumption is incorrect and many employers have the opportunity to receive their rent from training workers in general knowledge and skills at the expense of various factors that cause labor market imperfections, such as information asymmetries or wage compression. In a whole series of studies (G. County, V. Groot, L. Dearden, H. Reed, J. van Rienen) it was confirmed that an employer can receive rent from employee training: the authors showed that the increase in labor productivity after additional vocational training is many times higher wage growth.

It should be noted that measuring labor productivity is a very difficult task, so many researchers have focused on the analysis of wage changes after an employee has undergone additional professional training. Empirical estimates of the impact of additional training on wages are presented in the works of A. Booth, L. Lynch, D. Parent, H. Regner.

In addition, the researchers suggest that more capable people may be trained more or more often, as a result of which wage growth for more capable people occurs faster. Also, salary increases can be directly related to the ability level of these respondents. Thus, by evaluating the impact of additional training on wage growth, researchers get an estimate of the mixed influence - both the training itself and the abilities of the individual.

To solve this problem of endogeneity, attempts are made to include aptitude tests or army proficiency tests in the assessment. Also, one of the solutions is to use a first difference econometric model or a fixed effects methodology, which allows you to take into account changes in characteristics from the previous period in the assessment, thereby eliminating invariant effects, including such as the ability of an individual, assuming that they are unchanged. during the analyzed period. This methodology was used in the works of J. Veum, O. Lazareva, M. Gerfin, A. Bassanini and colleagues.

If in foreign studies the issues of additional vocational training are popular, then in Russia there is a limited number of works on this topic. In general, Russian studies under the authorship of V. Gimpelson, I. Denisova, O. Lazareva, A. Lukyanova, S. Tsukhlo are focused on the problems of the scale of additional training in Russia and the involvement of enterprise personnel in such training.

There are very few studies on the return on additional training based on Russian data. The impact of additional vocational training on wages in Russia is considered in most detail in the work of O. Lazareva. The study is based on data from 2001–2003. and does not address the issue of the impact of unobservable abilities on the returns to additional training. Empirical estimates of the impact of various forms of additional education on wages based on individual data are given in the work of M. Berger, J. Earl and K. Sabirianova based on data for 1994–1998. and in the work of E. Alexandrova and E. Kalabina - on data on employees of one enterprise for 2003–2010. A comprehensive study of the impact of additional vocational training on the growth of wages of Russian workers does not exist on modern data. At the moment, there are no results of the analysis for Russia of the increase in wages after the participation of an employee in advanced training or a retraining program that would use a methodology that takes into account the influence of unobservable characteristics on the effect of additional training.

The relevance and absence in the economic literature of studies on Russia that study the problem of the influence of the level of abilities of an individual on the measurement of wage growth after additional professional training predetermined the choice of the topic and purpose of the dissertation work.

Purpose and tasks dissertation research

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Influence of additional vocational training on the growth of wages of employees.

Theoretical basis of the research The theoretical and methodological basis of the dissertation research was the provisions of the modern theory of labor economics, the work of domestic and foreign authors devoted to the issues of additional vocational training. In the empirical part of the dissertation, modern methods econometric analysis, in particular regression analysis tools.

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Russian Monitoring of the Economic Situation and Health of the NRU HSE (RLMSHSE) is conducted by the National Research University Higher School of Economics

and CJSC "Demoscope" with the participation of the Population Center of the University of North Carolina in

Chapel Hill and the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. RLMS-HSE sites:

http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/rlms and http://www.hse.ru/rlms. In the early stages, the monitoring was called RLMS, but in the current study we will use the latter name.

The HSE survey has been conducted by the Labor Market Research Laboratory of the Higher School of Economics since 2009.

More detailed information about the VVVRT database is presented in paragraph 2.3 of the dissertation.

Since 2002, on behalf of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, the National Research University Higher School of Economics has been developing and implementing a comprehensive system for collecting, processing and presenting systematic information on the economic behavior of participants in the educational services market - Monitoring the Economics of Education (MEO). IEO website: http://memo.hse.ru.

The Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Surveys (BEEPS) are jointly conducted by the World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. BEEPS website: http:. www.enterprisesurveys.org/Data/ExploreTopics/workforce.

2. An algorithm for assessing the impact of additional vocational training on wages using the double-difference method of differences is proposed, which allows, subject to the assumption of the invariability of abilities in the short term, to solve the problem of the influence of unobservable characteristics of an individual on the estimated increase in wages after training.

3. Empirical assessments have been carried out, proving that additional vocational training increases the salary of an employee. The evaluation of the effect of additional training remains positive even when the influence of unobservable characteristics of the individual is taken into account.

4. A comprehensive assessment of the impact of additional professional training on wage growth was carried out.

It has been established that the increase in wages depends on the level of abilities of the individual and the sector of employment, and the level of basic education does not have a statistically significant effect on the amount of growth.

Practical significance The materials of this dissertation research were used in the following way:

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Approbation of results work Basic provisions and the results of the dissertation research were presented in reports at the following scientific and scientific-practical conferences: 1) international Conference"Key competencies of the XXI century: new dimensions of literacy of a modern person" (Moscow, Russia, 2014);

2) VII International Congress-Exhibition "Global Education - Education without Borders", within the framework of the thematic session "Competencies of modern adults: results international study PIAAC and new perspectives of educational policy” (Moscow, Russia, 2013); 3) "Transitions in work and labor markets" (University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland, 2013); 4) Second Russian Economic Congress (Suzdal, Russia, 2013);

5) IX International Scientific Conference "Sustainable Development of Russian Regions: Economics of Political Processes and new model spatial development” (Yekaterinburg, Russia, 2012);

6) XIII April international scientific conference "On the problems of economic and social development" (Moscow, Russia, 2013);

7) XIII International scientific and practical conference on the problems of reforming the public sector "Public Sector Transition" (St. Petersburg, Russia, 2011); 8) VIII International Scientific and Practical Conference on Economic Development in the Modern World “Sustainable Development of Russian Regions: Man and Modernization” (Yekaterinburg, Russia, 2011).

The main theoretical and practical results of the dissertation research are reflected in six printed works with a total volume of 7.2 pp. (author's contribution 7.2 pp). Of these, three articles were published in journals recommended by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, with a total volume of 2.4 pp.

The logic and structure of the work The logic of the dissertation research is based on a combination of theoretical and empirical analysis of the impact of additional vocational training on the wages of employees, and also involves a review of the main theoretical and empirical studies on this issue, an empirical analysis of data on the Russian labor market and a discussion of the results with access to the development of recommendations for state policy in the field of supporting additional vocational training in enterprises.

In accordance with the logic of the research, the dissertation has the following structure.

In the first chapter an overview of the types of training is given and a definition of the term "additional vocational training" is formulated, which will be used in the work. Further, theoretical and empirical approaches to the study of the impact of additional vocational training on the growth of labor productivity and wages of workers are considered.

A separate paragraph sets out the econometric problems in assessing the impact of additional training on workers' wages.

Second chapter is devoted to studying the scope of additional professional training at Russian enterprises.

An international comparison of the volume of additional training at enterprises is carried out. The demand of employers for specific skills of employees and the development of which skills is aimed at in-house training are analyzed. An empirical analysis is given of the influence of various factors on the scale of additional vocational training provided by enterprises.

In the third chapter the influence of additional vocational training is analyzed. The methodology is described. On the basis of descriptive statistics, a comparison is made of workers who participated and did not participate in advanced training or retraining programs in the past period. It is shown for different subgroups of employees to what extent additional vocational training affects wage growth when assessed using various methods. Based on the results obtained, recommendations are proposed for the state policy in the field of additional professional training in Russia.

In custody the results of the dissertation research are summed up and directions for further research on the topic of returns from additional professional training are outlined.

Chapter 1. Economic analysis of additional vocational training

1.1. Additional vocational training: concept and types Additional vocational training that takes place during the period of employment is usually seen as a process of building knowledge and skills in employees after a period of completed formal training. Additional vocational training includes various forms and types of obtaining knowledge and skills by an employee. Such training includes both advanced training, which develops skills and knowledge within the current specialization of the employee, and retraining programs, which train the employee in a new specialty.

Types of additional vocational training differ in the duration of training, the method of training, the source of funding and other characteristics. Before proceeding to the discussion of the issue of returns from additional professional training, it is necessary to consider what is the complexity of defining the concept and measuring the scale of additional training, then formulate what exactly in this dissertation research we will understand by the term "additional professional training". The variety of forms of additional professional training creates additional difficulties for the empirical evaluation of the effects of training. Depending on the set of reasons for choosing the type of training, the assessment of the effect of training can be shifted in different directions.

Due to the diversity and flexibility of the forms of additional professional training, it is not possible to give its full classification.

We present only the classification according to the main features:

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6. According to the duration of training and the document confirming it (diploma, certificate or state-issued certificate, depending on the duration

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Such a variety of types leads to additional difficulties in measuring the volume of training, and therefore, assessing the return from it. By return, we mean the change in labor productivity and, as a consequence, the change in the wages of the worker.

Measuring the volume of personnel training in enterprises is difficult due to the existence of many types and forms of training. In addition, employees and employers can assess the amount of training quite differently. Thus, a study in the United States, based on surveys of both enterprise employees and employers, shows that employers estimated the time spent on staff training a quarter more than the employees themselves (Barron et al., 1997). This means that part of the programs to develop skills and competencies was simply not perceived by employees as additional professional training.

According to the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 26, 1995 No. 610 "On Approval of the Model Regulations on the Educational Institution of Additional Professional Education (Advanced Training) of Specialists".

Accordingly, when econometrically assessing the return on training, there will be a bias in the results due to the fact that the training was, and the employee does not report it.

Difficulties in measuring the scale of learning are also due to the informal training of workers. Thus, the scale of non-formal additional training of workers, according to some estimates, is 5–7 times higher than the scale of formal training (Pishke, 2005). Each type of activity (industry) has its own specifics, and the organization of the workflow in each company also has its own distinctive features. Therefore, a hired employee must acquire knowledge and skills related to the peculiarities of work and technological processes at a particular enterprise and workplace. As a rule, the acquisition of such competencies occurs precisely in an informal way - through: 1) the accumulation of experience in the process of work (learning-by-doing); 2) observing the work of colleagues (learning-by-watching co-workers); 3) mentoring, when a more experienced employee is attached to a new employee, who is engaged in training.

Reliably measuring the extent of such learning is almost impossible, since there may not even be any record that the employee learned, for example, by observing colleagues. As one of the possible tools for measuring the volume of vocational training, the researchers used the length of service at the last place of work as an indicator of the specific experience accumulated in a given company or industry. The total work experience reflects the entire professional experience. It turns out that the more experience, the more professional knowledge and human skills. However, this measurement of non-formal learning may not be accurate.

And since we do not have reliable ways to measure non-formal learning, in this study we will focus only on the analysis of formal additional vocational training.

We also note that our study considers short-term additional training (that is, less than a year), since it is not possible to measure the return on training for a period of 2–3 years or more. During this period, serious changes can occur in individual characteristics (marital status, motivation, etc.), in the characteristics of the workplace (for example, changing jobs), in the external economic situation (in particular, financial crisis can influence decisions about investing in human capital).

One of the most important questions when studying additional vocational training is the source of its funding. Due to the fact that we cannot guarantee that employee-sponsored training will affect productivity at the current job 7, in our study we will mainly consider additional vocational training sponsored by the employer. We proceed from the premise that a rationally acting employer will not finance additional training that is not directly related to an increase in employee productivity.

Given all of the above information, the term “additional vocational training” in this study will be understood as employer-funded short-term formal training for an employee in order to improve the knowledge and skills that he needs for example, an employee receives a new specialty in order to be able to get new job. However, whether he will change jobs remains in question. Whereas his labor productivity at the current place of work will remain unchanged.

fulfillment job duties. Training can be within the framework of the specialty available to the employee or within the framework of an additional (related) specialty (for example, obtaining managerial skills by an engineer); pass with a break and without a break from professional activity, in the workplace or in specialized educational institutions.

1.2. Theoretical Aspects of the Impact of Supplementary Vocational Training on Labor Productivity and Wages The starting point for studying the return on additional vocational training is Harry Becker's theory of human capital. According to this theory, labor productivity and, accordingly, wages depend on the human capital of the worker. By receiving education and acquiring knowledge and skills in the workplace, an individual invests in his human capital and thereby increases his labor productivity, as a result, the employer is forced to pay this employee a higher wage so that he does not go to competitors.

G. Becker proposes to divide human capital into general and specific. Investments in specific human capital lead to an increase in the productivity of an employee only in a particular company, while an increase in general human capital implies the improvement of knowledge and skills that may be useful to other employers.

A worker who has received general training increases his productivity, and since a worker's wage in a perfectly competitive labor market is set equal to his marginal productivity, companies will not be able to recover their investment. If the employer sets a lower salary, then the employee will simply go to competitors. Specific human capital, on the other hand, can be useful to an employee only at the place of work where he currently works. In fact, the decision on whether to invest in additional vocational training - the employer or the employee himself, directly depends on how the benefits from the increased productivity of the employee are distributed. One of G. Becker's conclusions was that it is unprofitable for companies to invest in the total human capital of employees; accordingly, employers will take on part of the costs only for the development of specific human capital of employees (Becker, 2003).

In practice, Becker's assumption that firms will only invest in specific skills has not been borne out: on average, more than 60% of training is in general training, and in Europe this share reaches 90% (OECD, 2008). In this regard, researchers have proposed alternative theories of investment in the human capital of workers.

Explanation of firms' investments in general training became the theory of information asymmetry, based on the assumption of insufficient awareness of the firm-competitor about the true performance of the employee at the current place of work. By increasing the productivity of an employee through training, the employer can pay him less than labor productivity requires, thereby compensating for his training costs and even making a profit. Thus, in conditions of information asymmetry, the impact of additional vocational training on employee wages is reduced compared to a perfectly competitive labor market (Katz, Ziderman, 1990; Acemoglu, Pischke, 1999).

Another explanation for the investment of companies in the total human capital of workers is the theory of wage compression, which reveals the relationship between the level of abilities and qualifications and the return on training.

According to this theory, due to the imperfection of the labor market, firms receive rent from workers - the difference between the worker's labor productivity and the minimum wage level at which the worker does not seek to change jobs. The higher the level of ability of the individual and his productivity, the higher the rent received by the employer. There are various factors in the labor market that increase the level of wages “from below”: the introduction of a high minimum wage rate, the activities of trade unions, etc. At the same time, wages are limited “from above”, including due to the asymmetry of information on the productivity of qualified specialists , so that firms earn more rent from high-performing employees, since the difference between their labor productivity and salary significantly higher than that of low-skilled workers (Acemoglu and Pischke, 1999; Almeida-Santos and Mumford, 2005).

Another theory that explains the effect of additional training on wage growth is the signal theory, according to which the certification of training programs brings more benefits to the employee than to the employer. Certification of training is thought to reduce information asymmetry, thereby reducing firms' incentives to invest in training as the rent they receive decreases. This is due to the fact that competing employers will have a better idea of ​​workers who have a certificate or other document confirming the possession of certain skills and knowledge. Note, however, that certification of training will increase the scale of additional vocational training financed and co-financed by the workers themselves, because it gives an additional signal about their professional competencies(Hansson, 2008).

The employer, investing in the human capital of employees, expects to receive a return in the form of an increase in labor productivity. The theory of rational behavior states that an agent (employer) will not make an investment if he does not expect to compensate them in the future. Almost all theories about additional vocational training are based on this. However, a number of researchers are testing empirical confirmation of the increase in labor productivity after additional training. American researchers use two US databases (Employment Opportunity Pilot Program and The Small Business Administration Survey) for empirical verification. Their estimates show that the increase in labor productivity is several times greater than the increase in wages, and the results are identical in both surveys (Barron et al., 1999).

In several other works, the increase in labor productivity and the increase in wages are compared (see Table 1P Appendix A). A study based on data from the UK shows that the impact of additional vocational training on labor productivity is twice the impact on wages (Dearden et al., 2006).

According to data on additional training in Italian firms, the increase in labor productivity exceeds the increase in wages by 5 times. It should be noted that in some regressions, the effect of additional training on salary is not even statistically significant, while the effect on productivity is statistically significant in all specifications (Counti, 2005).

A comparative analysis of data from Sweden and France shows that workers after training increase their productivity 3-3.5 times more compared to the increase in wages (Ballot et al., 2006).

The measurement of labor productivity is difficult, in fact it is possible only through the measurement of output. However, this approach is not applicable to many categories of workers. Therefore, as an alternative, researchers compare the change in wages of two workers who have completed training, one of whom changes jobs after graduation, while the second remains with the former employer.

It is assumed that the new employer did not spend on training and can afford to pay the employee a wage equal to (or slightly less than) his labor productivity.

Thus, the difference between the increase in the salary of a worker with a new employer and the change in the salary of a non-mobile worker after training is measured. The resulting delta will mean the possible return on investment in the human capital of employees.

An OECD study of 11 European countries shows that wage growth for non-mobile workers is half that of those who change jobs (OECD, 2004).

In Switzerland, there is a gap of 3–4 times (Gerfin, 2004).

In a UK study, the increase in wages for a job changer is 7.5% versus 2.4% for a job retainer (Booth and Bryan, 2002). P. Lengermann (Lengermann, 1999) using data from the USA demonstrates a significant increase in wages after long-term training also with a mobile worker (8.3 vs. 4%).

So, the increase in wages for a mobile worker is significantly higher, but such a comparison is possible only with general training. After all, training aimed at developing specific skills is valued only by a real employer, while other employers will not be interested in it. At the same time, for the current employer, specific training gives a smaller increase in wages compared to general training, since other firms will not pay for competencies they do not need. H. Regner in the study confirms that the increase in wages after general training is higher than after specific training (Regner, 2002).

In many situations, it is not possible to determine the change in labor productivity, and researchers use the change in wages after additional training (respectively, controlling for changes in other observed individual and workplace characteristics) as a proxy to confirm the increase in worker productivity. The main assumption of the researchers is that the employer raises wages only with an increase in the level of skills and competencies of the employee. Hence, the challenge of measuring returns to learning arises (Hansson, 2008).

There are many factors that affect the return on learning. First, factors that are directly related to the training itself: for example, the duration of training or the direction of the training program. Secondly, the individual characteristics of the employee: the level of education and abilities, gender, qualification group and type of activity. Thirdly, the characteristics of the workplace: whether the firm is a monopsonist in the labor market, the financial position of the company, type of activity, etc. Let us dwell on a number of factors in more detail.

One of the factors is the relationship of additional vocational training with the initial level of education received. There are several points of view. The first is that the initial vocational education mainly provides general skills for a specific professional area or type of activity, these skills can be useful at work in most companies if the graduate goes to work in their specialty. Accordingly, ceteris paribus, it is the worker with the lower level of education who should be sent for training to fill in the gaps, and therefore for the employer to receive an annuity after training (Battu et al., 2004; Arulampalam et al., 2010).

Another point of view is that the training of workers with a higher level of education brings the employer more return on training compared to the training of less educated employees. There are two explanations for this approach. First, according to the theory of wage compression, more educated individuals have higher qualifications and higher labor productivity, which, together with the lowering of wages “from above”, makes it possible for the employer to receive higher rents (Evertsson, 2004). Secondly, the education received is a signal about the level of abilities of the individual. Accordingly, by training more capable individuals, the firm gets the greatest increase in labor productivity (Bassanini et al., 2005).

As already shown, the level of education received is directly related to the level of abilities of the individual. It is the relationship between the level of an individual's abilities and the return on additional professional training that is the main issue that is discussed in many works devoted to this topic. There are several aspects of the relationship. A number of studies confirm that the impact of additional training on labor productivity and wages is greatest for the most capable employees (Dearden et al., 2006;

Booth, Bryan, 2002; Loewenstein and Spletzer, 1999, etc.). The next aspect is that because the returns are high, firms, other things being equal, send the most capable employees for training, thereby widening the wage gap compared to the least capable and least motivated colleagues (Lengermann, 1999).

However, it needs to be clarified, what exactly do researchers manage to measure: the return on additional training or the return on the employee's abilities? An employee's high level of ability can manifest itself not only in the process of work, but also in the process of learning: he spends less time on training or acquires more knowledge and skills, thereby getting a greater return on training. At the same time, the abilities of an individual, as well as a number of other factors (family and friendship ties, motivation, etc.), have a direct impact on both labor productivity (and hence the level of wages) and the likelihood of participating in programs learning. However, the level of abilities, motivation, connections are unobservable characteristics, since it is almost impossible to measure them. There is no test that reliably shows the level of ability or determines true motivation person. It turns out that the ability of the employee will affect the assessment of the return on training. Thus, when empirically testing this hypothesis in their work on data from France, researchers come to the conclusion that when employers control the selection of workers for training programs, the effect of additional training drops to almost zero (Goux, Maurin, 2000).

Very an important factor One factor that influences the degree of impact of additional vocational training on labor productivity and employee wages is the effect of selection on training programs. By training a small number of employees, the employer can afford to select the most capable, as well as employees whose training will have the greatest effect. Thus, the higher the proportion of employees undergoing training, the more difficult it is for the employer to select those who are best suited for training, and vice versa. Accordingly, under such conditions, the effect of additional vocational training may also decrease (Bassanini et al., 2005). At the same time, the effect of selection of enterprises can be observed. So, other things being equal, it is financially successful, growing enterprises that are more likely to invest in employee training.

At the same time, such enterprises, due to their financial capacity, can afford to hire more qualified and more capable workers, who, as described above, receive a higher return on training compared to less capable colleagues (Hansson, 2005). It can be assumed that the larger the scale of additional vocational training in the country, the smaller the impact of training on the growth of labor productivity and wages. However, it should be noted that there are no such researchers who would receive reliable empirical confirmation of the relationship between the scale of training and the effect of training. At the same time, the possibility of the influence of the selection effect on the return from additional training cannot be denied.

Turning to the description of the influence of other factors, we should dwell in more detail on the information asymmetry in the labor market. As already mentioned, researchers agree that there is a positive impact of vocational training on worker productivity. However, the impact on wages already depends on the imperfection of the labor market, that is, on the answer to the question of how much rent an employer can afford to charge a trained employee due to the fact that other employers do not know anything about the employee's abilities.

The impact of information asymmetry on returns to learning is confirmed by a study assessing the differences in returns between conventional and certified education (meaning a training program in which participation is confirmed by an appropriate certificate, diploma or other document).

Basic education acts as a signal about certain skills of a trained worker. The professional qualification of an employee with such a signal becomes more understandable for other employers. Consequently, the firm will be forced to raise wages higher (lowering its rent) than uncertified training so that the trained employee is not poached and the firm loses all of its investment in that employee (Hansson, 2008).

In addition to differences in education levels and abilities, the researchers asked whether gender differences have an impact on the value of the return on additional professional education. There are indications that, in general, women are less likely to be sent by employers than men (Leuven and Oosterbeek, 1999). The researchers also come to the conclusion that the level of influence of additional training on wages among women is slightly lower than that among men (Evertsson, 2004; Regner, 2002; OECD, 2004).

Among other things, it should be borne in mind that employers who decide to invest in the human capital of workers may face the risk of losing their investment. Since an employee after training can act opportunistically and leave the company. Despite the fact that inter-company mobility does not directly affect the change in employee productivity after training, this issue is very important in the context of discussing the impact of additional professional training for the employer.

The reasons for changing jobs can be different:

a competing firm offered better terms or the employee decided to become inactive. This reduces the incentives for firms to finance staff training programs. If the second option is possible, but remains outside the scope of the current study, then we will dwell on the first scenario in more detail.

What incentives drive an employee to leave the firm after training is quite clear. Based on Becker's theory, the company will not be able to pay the employee after training according to his labor productivity, since the employer needs to compensate for his costs of training the employee. Whereas competing firms that did not bear the cost of training, may well afford to charge higher wages. Especially considering that, according to research, the fastest relative growth in employee wages occurs with intercompany mobility (Lukyanova, 2009).

Much more interesting is what makes an employee stay.

There are several influencing factors here. First, in many countries it is legally permitted to enter into "student contracts" with an employee, which obliges the employee to reimburse the employer's expenses for training. Secondly, information asymmetry, when the new employer, in fact, knows nothing about the level of knowledge and skills of the employee. Therefore, it cannot offer wages in accordance with the professional qualifications of the employee. Thirdly, in enterprises where selective training of employees is carried out, other things being equal, they choose the most capable, since, as mentioned above, the return on them is higher. Accordingly, the employee understands that he is on a special account with the management. Fourthly, additional vocational training can be the development of not only existing competencies, but also knowledge and skills in other specialties that are required for internal promotion.

Unfortunately, there is not much research on returns to mobility compared to work on returns to wages and labor productivity. It is connected with the complexity of measuring the scope and direction of training, as well as the fact that the decision on inter-company mobility is made based on many factors, often independent of the labor market.

Researchers come to different conclusions about how the presence of training programs in the enterprise affects staff turnover.

D. Parent in his work proves that training reduces the likelihood of employee mobility between firms (Parent, 1999).

Other researchers come to the same conclusion (Loewenstein, Spletzer, 1999). Evaluation of the impact of gender differences on inter-firm mobility shows that after training, women are more likely to remain firm than men (Lynch, 1991; Melero, 2004).

In conclusion of this section, we note the key problems associated with measuring the return on additional vocational training. This is, firstly, the difficulty of measuring the scale of training, which leads to difficulties in selecting a control group to calculate the effect of training. Secondly, the increase in labor productivity after the employee has completed training is many times greater than the increase in wages. This conclusion from previous studies suggests that the employer will be able to receive rent from a trained employee due to the difference between labor productivity and wages. Third, the effect of ability on the likelihood of being selected for training and measuring the impact of additional professional training on wages. How researchers try to overcome various difficulties, including the effect of ability, in assessing the impact of additional vocational training on wages, will be discussed in the next paragraph.

1.3. Econometric problems of evaluating the return on additional vocational training Researchers who analyze the impact of additional vocational training on wages face a number of difficulties. These problems include: 1) the difficulty of measuring the participation of workers in additional professional training programs; 2) a variety of types of training, which complicates the measurement of returns; 3) determination of the duration of the influence of the effect of training; 4) the influence of abilities on the measurement of the effect of training. In this section, we will dwell in more detail on the methods used in the economic literature to overcome the latter problem. Since the influence of abilities on the selection and self-selection of employees for participation in training programs is key to measuring the return on additional professional training.

Let's start with the most common estimation method - the method of least squares (LSM). The OLS model evaluates the Mintzer wage equation with the addition of a dummy variable indicating the completion of training. This approach makes it possible to control both all individual characteristics of workers available in the data and the characteristics of workplaces (Lynch, 1992; Veum, 1997; Parent, 1999; Goux, Maurin, 2000; Lazareva, 2006; Tan et al., 2007 and many others). ). Estimates of the increase in hourly earnings, obtained using the least squares method, for European countries range from 3.7 to 21.6%. Moreover, the authors note that the highest scores were found in countries with the lowest involvement of personnel in the process of additional training, such as Greece and Portugal (Bassanini et al., 2005). Since the LSM model assumes the same level of return for individuals belonging to different subgroups, this model does not allow tracking the effect of unobservable characteristics.

To solve the problem of the influence of unobservable variables such as abilities, motivation, etc., fixed effects regressions are used in the literature (Veum, 1997; Booth, Bryan, 2002; Loewenstein, Spletzer, 1998; Loewenstein, Spletzer, 1999;

Lazareva, 2006). It is assumed that such characteristics do not change much with time, and this technique makes it possible to remove their influence on final grade. This methodology requires panel data for several periods, which can make it difficult to use the adjustment. Also, as a disadvantage, the researchers note that in the long term, very few characteristics remain unchanged, that is, an attempt to control them can lead to a bias in estimates. The estimates obtained by the described analysis method are traditionally smaller compared to the estimation of the LSM model. A study by A. Bassanini et al., devoted to a large-scale analysis of additional vocational training in Europe, provides estimates of the impact of training on wages obtained using fixed effects regression. Results range from near zero returns in France to a 10% wage increase in Portugal. Researchers note that returns in Portugal may be higher due to the fact that fewer workers are trained there, and employers can choose the employee who will bring the highest return (Bassanini et al., 2005).

An alternative way to deal with the influence of unobservable characteristics is the "difference of differences" methodology.

When assessing using this methodology, researchers divide the observed respondents into an experimental group (those who received training) and a control group (depending on the choice of researchers: these can be all other respondents or those who have the most similar characteristics with those trained). Comparison of these two groups prior to training results in a net effect of additional training on wage growth (Ashenfelter and Card, 1985; Fitzenbergerz and Prey, 2000; Gerfin, 2004;

Bergemann et al., 2009; Travkin, 2013).

The use of instrumental variables makes it possible to combat the non-randomness of selection to training programs and is a common method used in assessing the impact of training on wages (Parent, 1999; Abadie et al., 2002). The main difficulty of this method lies in the selection of an instrumental variable that should not be correlated with random model errors, but should have a direct impact on the likelihood of participation in the training program. Thus, in the work of L. Rotar on additional vocational training in Slovenia, a regional dummy variable is used as a tool. In a number of regions in Slovenia, the share of those participating in training programs is much higher than in other regions (Rotar, 2012).

To obtain estimates of the return on additional vocational training for groups of workers with different levels of ability, a quantile regression method is used, which divides individuals into groups according to the degree of influence of unobserved characteristics, taking into account all observed explanatory variables (Abadie at al., 2002; Arulampalam et al., 2004 ). Recall that abilities, motivation, dedication, connections and other factors that have strong influence on the level of wages, are practically unmeasurable.

The basic premise for using this method is that the rate of return for capable individuals may differ from the rate of return for individuals with a low level of ability. Works on Germany (Bauer and Haisken-Denew, 2001) and Portugal (Hartog et al., 2001) show that individuals with low ability levels receive lower returns compared to capable employees.

Evaluation by all of the above methods assumes a strict functional dependence of the variable, which means the level of wages, on the explanatory variables.

Therefore, a number of studies use a methodology based on the comparison of observed individuals by the method of selecting a control group - simple (Matching) or according to the matching index (Propensity Score Matching). The study simulates a natural experiment, where the control group is individuals who do not participate in the program, but are actually comparable in terms of observed characteristics (Aakvik, 2001).

Due to the fact that the methods of selection of the control group do not allow tracking the impact of changes that occur with the individual over time, it is possible to combine with other methods.

So, for example, in a study on Germany, the authors combined the method of selecting a control group according to the matching index with the “difference of differences” methodology, as a result, they obtained estimates at the level of 4.7–5.9%, which is 1.5–2 times less compared to estimated using an LSM model (8.4–10.2%) (Muehler et al., 2007).

None of the studies fully addresses the problem of the influence of unobserved variables on the effect of additional vocational training on workers' wages. Absence reliable methods measuring the scale of training, the abilities of individuals, the reaction of workers to participation in training does not provide an opportunity to obtain data for the final solution of the issue - there is room for new researchers.

1.4. Studies of continuing vocational training in Russia The first work to study the return on additional vocational training on Russian data is a study by M. Berger, J. Earl, K. Sabirianova, based on the HSE RLMS database for 1994–1996, 1998. The analysis carried out shows that the fact of advanced training in the last three years reduces the wage rate, while the passage of a retraining program increases wages by 35% (Berger et al., 2001).

In the study by O. Lazareva, the analysis is carried out on the data of the National Research University Higher School of Economics (RLMS) for 2000–2003. The author shows that, as in other countries, most of the on-the-job training is paid by the employer, in addition, employers do not compensate for their training costs by reducing salaries for the training period. The largest volumes of additional training are noted in non-market sectors - medicine and education, which, apparently, have retained the former state system of personnel training and mandatory periodic advanced training. Industry and market services provide far fewer training opportunities for their workers. In this paper, the author divides the sample into market and non-market sectors, thereby trying to avoid mixing up such different labor markets. The author takes the average salary for the last year as a dependent variable, and evaluates it using the fixed effects method.

Only training paid by the previous employer turns out to be a significant assessment (in the market sector, the effect ranges from 11 to 19%). Perhaps the reason is that in this study information about learning was too much fragmented between different types training and due to the small number of observations, most of the estimates turned out to be insignificant. As a conclusion, the author concludes that in concentrated labor markets, the level of influence of training on wages is less. However, this may be due to the fact that most of the rent is taken by the employer, thereby compensating for his training costs (Lazareva, 2006).

In 2005, the National Research University Higher School of Economics, together with the World Bank, conducted a survey at manufacturing enterprises.

The authors study the impact of training programs on the productivity of companies and the distribution of wages depending on the professional activities of employees. The study estimates the contribution of additional training to an 18% increase in wages, all other things being equal. However, this analysis needs to take into account endogeneity: financially more successful firms that pay high salaries are more likely to be able to afford training programs for their employees (Tan et al., 2007).

Another study evaluates the return on additional vocational training on the data of one large manufacturing enterprise in the Sverdlovsk region.

Having information on the level of education, length of service and other individual characteristics during 2003–2010, the authors use the OLS model to assess the impact of various types of training on wages. When training as an apprentice, an employee loses 8% in wages, but this is most likely due to the peculiarities of the apprenticeship contract, which ties the trained employee to the employer to compensate for the costs of training. Training in a related specialty and advanced training bring a positive return - 1.8 and 5.8%, respectively (Aleksandrova, Kalabina, 2011).

The work of O. Lazareva, I. Denisova, and S. Tsukhlo (Rossiyskiy Rabochik, 2011) shows that the level of education is quite low with high labor mobility. For an enterprise, a personnel training strategy is an alternative to finding and hiring new employees. Training is especially attractive when the costs of searching and hiring are too high. At the same time, training is provided, ceteris paribus, to more educated and skilled groups of workers.

The above review of the literature shows that many researchers, based on empirical analysis, confirm the existence of positive returns from additional professional training.

Moreover, the impact on the productivity of an employee is much greater than on the wages he receives. At the same time, it is necessary to control many factors that have a direct impact on the amount of return from additional training, the most important of which is the level of abilities. At the same time, there are not many studies based on data for Russia that address the issue of the influence of ability level on the impact of additional vocational training on the wages of workers and compare the effect of additional training in different groups workers with different skill levels. In this dissertation, we will try to fill these gaps in research.

Chapter 2. Additional vocational training in Russian enterprises While training affects wages depends on who is being trained, depends on which enterprises train and what is taught.

When we look at the returns to training based on individual microdata, it does not allow us to trace how enterprise policy affects the selection of employees for participation in training programs.

In this chapter, we will look at three important aspects that ultimately affect the return from additional vocational training to workers' wages. First, the scale of learning in companies. It is one thing when all employees are trained, it is another thing when only highly qualified specialists are selected for training. Secondly, what are they teaching?

What skills and competencies are companies interested in developing? Thirdly, which enterprises train employees.

Thus, training at an enterprise that is significantly lagging behind in its technical and technological state is likely to be significantly different from training at a leading enterprise in the industry. Therefore, we will analyze what factors influence the policy of enterprises in the issue of additional professional training of personnel.

2.1. Scale of continuing vocational training across countries To make an international comparison of the scale of continuing vocational training, we will use the data provided by the BEEPS survey. According to the BEEPS survey conducted by the World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, in developed countries the share of companies that train their employees is very high. This is explained by the fact that for employers, additional professional training has always been among the main tools for improving the professional knowledge and skills of employees. High rates of training volumes are observed not only in Switzerland, Finland, Sweden, but also in Eastern European countries such as Poland, Estonia, Czech Republic, where the share of training enterprises is 60–70% (see Figure 2.1).

Source: BEEPS data Figure 2.1 - Distribution of countries by the share of companies providing training, % The volume of employee training in an enterprise is directly related to the level of investment directed to personnel development.

The larger the investment, the more likely the more trained or the higher the quality of training in the enterprise. A comparison of countries in terms of additional training funding, measured as a share of total staff costs, shows that on average 3% of such costs are spent on training in Europe, according to a Cranet survey (Hansson, 2007).

In studies for Russia 8, estimates range from 0.3 to 0.7%:

“In 2010, Russian enterprises and organizations spent 91.1 billion rubles on advanced training, training and retraining of employees, or about 0.4% of their annual wage fund”9.

To correctly assess the scale of training in Russia, it is necessary to consider international trends in the light of the peculiarities of national institutional characteristics, in particular, ways to support additional professional training at the government and legislative levels. Today, developed countries use various measures that stimulate or subsidize the investment of organizations and workers in vocational training. Some of these measures are related to ensuring a return on investment in staff training. For example, they impose restrictions on dismissal for own will for employees who were trained at the expense of the employer. One of the most common measures in Europe to protect business investments in the professional education of staff is a contract that provides for a penalty in the amount of the cost of training if an employee leaves the company before the period specified in the contract.

Monograph "Russian Worker: Education, Profession, Qualification" edited by V.E.

Gimpelson, R.I. Kapelyushnikov. Chapter 8

Monitoring the Economics of Education: A Survey of Enterprise Managers http://memo.hse.ru/ind_w08_4_11 Additional education has important socioeconomic implications (Newmark and Wascher, 2001). First, it helps to reduce the unemployment rate in the country, as workers get the skills in time that allow them to remain competitive in the labor market. Secondly, the development by workers of the most modern technologies and equipment leads to an increase in labor productivity and, as a result, to the economic growth of the country.

In recent years, a lot of research has appeared on the problems of staff training in the workplace.

Many researchers try to explain the differences in programs and volumes of training in different countries by differences in the institutional characteristics of labor markets.

According to a study on the impact of unemployment on additional training, high unemployment increases the return on training for the company, since there are fewer alternative jobs for the individual, therefore, the company can take more rent. At the same time, training volumes may be reduced, as a worker with the required qualifications can be found at a lower cost than in a full-time economy (De Paola and Scoppa, 2001).

Many surveys have been conducted on the impact of unemployment on the extent of additional training. For example, according to a study by OECD countries, the spread of estimates starts with 20% of companies training their employees in Poland and Hungary, and the maximum level (about 60%) is observed in Switzerland and Denmark. The authors of this study show an almost direct relationship between the share of companies that train their employees and the level of employment in the country: the more training firms, the lower the unemployment rate in the country (OECD, 2004; see Figure 1P in Appendix A).

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Indirect evaluation of the effectiveness of measures state support additional professional training is considered in the work of K. Greenhal. So the French train-orpay system, introduced in 1971, is that each company with more than 10 employees must spend at least 1.5% of the total wage fund on employee training or pay the same amount in form of tax. According to a study, the volume of education in France is higher than in England, where such a system does not exist (Greenhalgh, 1999).

2.2. The dynamics of vocational training in Russia Estimates of data for Russia vary quite a lot not only by year, but also by surveys. The effect of bias is provided by differences in surveys, when samples can be focused on representatives of different industries. In addition, it must be taken into account that the measurement of learning itself is not an easy task.

A special study in the USA shows that employers estimate the amount of training about a quarter more than the employees of these enterprises themselves (Barron et al., 1997).

The overall picture of training volumes in Russia (figure 2.2) includes estimates based on different sources:

BEEPS is an enterprise survey conducted by the World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development for 125 countries with a frequency of 3-4 years. On average, shows the smallest share of companies that train their employees among all companies participating in the study. Perhaps this is due to the fact that there are a large number of small enterprises in the BEEPS surveys that lower the average level of training.

HSE - microdata from sample surveys of manufacturing enterprises conducted by the National Research University Higher School of Economics jointly with the Levada Center in 2009 and jointly with the World Bank in 2005.

The sample sizes are approximately 1000 enterprises.

According to these surveys, in 2008, 49.8% of companies trained employees, while in 2004 - 68.7% (Gimpelson, 2010).

Monitoring the Economics of Education The Higher School of Economics, in cooperation with vocational education institutions, has been conducting an annual analysis of the activity of employers in the labor market and their needs since 2005. The sample includes 1,000 enterprises from six sectors of the economy. The share of training companies varies from 61% (in 2009) to 72% (in 2004). According to monitoring data, there is a significant failure in 2008-2009, that is, during the crisis.

VVVRT database. Enterprise surveys are carried out annually. For more information on sampling, see Section 2.3.

72 70,2 68,7 68 68 66,4 65,1 60 54,5 52,2 51,3 49,8 36,2

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According to a survey carried out Federal Service state statistics for 2010 10, 15.8% of employees were trained in medium and large companies. Figure 2.3 shows the situation of personnel involvement in additional vocational training by type of activity. The smallest share of trained is observed in agriculture and fisheries - about 4%, the highest figure is demonstrated by firms engaged in financial activities, - 24.5%. Enterprises whose main activity is mining, manufacturing, and the production and distribution of gas and water train 22–23%. Received by Rosstat "On additional vocational education employees in organizations in 2010”

Rosstat: http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/population/education/.

Information on additional professional education in organizations was prepared based on the results for 2010 of a new federal statistical survey conducted every 3-4 years.

Information is given for commercial and non-profit organizations (except for small businesses) of all forms of ownership and types economic activity(except for public administration and ensuring military security; social insurance;

activities religious organizations households, extraterritorial organizations).

scores are higher than in studies on the scale of learning. This is because, due to economies of scale, other things being equal, the larger the company, the more likely an employer is to provide training to its employees. If we take all firms, including those operating in the shadow market, then the share of trained employees will be significantly lower.

Provision of other communal, social and personal services 6.0

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Source: Rosstat data, 2010 Figure 2.3 - Share of employees trained by industry (Rosstat, 2010), % 10–15% of employees funded by employers (Tan et al., 2007), while in OECD countries this figure is on average 35–40%, and in Switzerland it reaches 60% (Bassanini, 2005).

Summing up, we note that the share of Russian companies participating in the learning process is quite large and is quite comparable with the average indicators for high-income OECD countries.

What factors could dampen incentives for companies to invest in employee training?

First, the established social institutions. Their influence can be attributed to the high level of mobility among Russian workers, as well as a large number of workers with higher education. (According to the OECD report, in 2008 Russia was in 11th place in terms of the number of people with higher education and in 1st place in terms of the share of people with tertiary education among respondents.) Both of these factors negatively affect the incentives of companies to train their employees: in in the first case - out of fear of opportunistic behavior, in the second - higher education provides general skills that companies no longer need to invest in.

Second, the return on learning. When investing money, the employer wants to be sure that the investment will bring profit. But since learning varies in form and content, it is very difficult to measure returns (Bassanini et al., 2005).

Do these factors influence the behavior of employers regarding additional vocational training? To answer this question, it is necessary, in addition to assessing the impact of social institutions, to assess the impact of the characteristics of the enterprises themselves. Only then will it be possible to determine the scale of training among Russian companies.

2.3. Demand for skills of workers from Russian enterprises and additional vocational training To analyze the scale and trends of additional vocational training in Russia, it is necessary to find out which skills of workers are demanded by employers. Demand for certain skills means that training in those skills will have a maximum return on the labor market.

Enterprises use additional professional training to fill gaps in the competencies of employees.

In order to understand what motives drive Russian enterprises, one should consider what skills and competencies of their employees they feel are lacking. To do this, we will use the VVVRT database.

The VVVRT database sample annually covers 1,500 enterprises located in large cities of Russia. It includes small, medium and large enterprises, but since 2010 it does not include firms with less than 50 employees.

The sample is representative of industries, which makes cross-industry comparisons possible. However, it does not include civil servants, who are required to attend refresher courses at least once every three years11.

Federal Law No. 79-FZ "On the State Civil Service of the Russian Federation", Art. 62.

The VVVRT survey has been conducted once a year since 2009. For our study, the survey is suitable in that it includes questions about additional training personnel, as well as those that contain key information about the activities of companies. The survey is a non-panel sample, as different firms are interviewed each year and asked a series of retrospective questions comparing the situation in the current and previous years for a particular firm. Thus, we can, with some adjustment, trace the temporal effects.

The empirical analysis contained in this chapter is based on the results of a survey of representatives of 1,500 enterprises in the main sectors of the economy, conducted in November 2011 by LIRT NRU HSE with the assistance of the Moscow office of the World Bank. The enterprises covered by the survey are located in 26 regions of the country, including Moscow and St. Petersburg. In total, the questionnaire contains 113 questions on various aspects of the functioning of internal labor markets: hiring and firing, training, types of contracts, wages, etc.

The questions of the questionnaire were answered by heads of departments of personnel (personnel) of enterprises. Questions regarding skills demand and skills training were asked for three categories of workers: managers, professionals, workers and lower-level employees.

Companies, differing in size and activities, may have different staff training strategies. The size of the company can be determined by various criteria, according to which the company belongs to a particular class. According to Russian legislation, there are a number of criteria by which an enterprise can be classified as a medium or small business. First, the revenue limit12 is 400 million rubles for small businesses and 1,000 million rubles for medium-sized ones. Secondly, the limitation on the number of personnel: for a medium-sized enterprise - from 101 to 250 people, for a small one - less than 100 people. Thus, in terms of the number of employees, half of the enterprises covered by the VVVRT sample can be classified as small: they employ from 50 to 100 people.

A quarter of enterprises are large:

their staff exceeds 250 people. 22% are medium-sized enterprises, and in 2.5% of cases the number of employees is not indicated.

The sectoral distribution of enterprises in the sample is shown in Figure 2.4. The largest share of enterprises in the sample is taken by the wholesale and retail- fifteen%. The healthcare industry and the education industry, traditionally classified as a public sector, account for 6.2% and 5.6% of the total number of enterprises, respectively.

–  –  –

The overwhelming majority (93.5%) of the enterprises from the sample belong to the private sector, in the rest the state is the only owner. Slightly more than half (51.7%) of enterprises are located in large cities with a population of over 1 million; 27.3% of enterprises operate in cities with a population of 500,000 to 1 million; the rest - in cities with a population of less than 500 thousand people.

Among the enterprises of different industries, a class of innovative enterprises was distinguished according to the methodology of Rosstat: an enterprise was considered innovative if it financed at least two of the following types of activities:

–  –  –

According to this approach, 11.28% of enterprises from the entire sample turned out to be innovative13, which corresponds to the official assessment of the scale of innovative activity of Russian industrial enterprises, which in the 2000s was in the range of 9.3–10.6% (Russian Innovation Index, 2011). Innovative companies implementing New Product or production technology, place increased demands on the knowledge and skills of their employees. Often the demand for such personnel is not easy to satisfy in the external labor market, therefore innovative firms have an incentive to actively invest in the development of their employees. For a general descriptive analysis for innovative and traditional companies, see Table 3P Appendix B.

Accordingly, the rest of the companies belonged to the traditional class.

Scale of skills gaps in Russian enterprises This part of the dissertation is based on the methodology of the World Bank report on the study of skills and competencies in the Russian labor market (Vasiliev et al., 2013). In this work, three groups of workers will be used for analysis: 1) managers; 2) specialists; 3) lower-level workers and employees. Skills were selected that can be divided into three groups: 1) cognitive (basic and high order);

2) non-cognitive (socio-behavioral and character traits);

3) technical (see table 2.1).

Table 2.1 - List of skills, abilities, competencies, personal characteristics used in the study

–  –  –

Cognitive basic Reading and writing skills Accounting skills Knowledge of foreign languages ​​High-order cognitive Ability to make non-standard decisions, take non-standard actions Ability to solve problems arising at work Ability to plan work (one's own and, if necessary, others)

–  –  –

Social and Behavioral Ability to work with people Leadership qualities Ability to work independently Ability to cooperate with others Character traits/Big Five Conscientiousness (takes work seriously, is hardworking, works efficiently) Emotional stability (relaxed, resistant to stress, does not worry or nervous about little things) Non-conflict (easily forgives people, attentive, kind, polite) Extraversion (talkative, assertive, friendly, sociable) Open to new ideas (original, has many new ideas, has an active imagination) Technical (narrowly professional, related to work) Job related skills (eg typist - typing skills;

accountant - the ability to keep records) According to the survey, half of the enterprises report a lack of skills among workers and employees of the lower level. Almost the same number - 48.1% of enterprises - are dissatisfied with the volume of skills possessed by specialists. Only 35.6% of enterprises speak of an unmet need for managerial skills.

The set of skills required by enterprises varies somewhat across groups of workers (figure 2.5). However, there is one thing in common: the enterprises almost do not report a lack of reading, writing, numeracy, and extroversion in any of their groups of employees. This may indicate that, on the one hand, employees possess basic cognitive skills in full, and on the other hand, that openness and sociability are not qualities that are important for work.

–  –  –

10.0 5.0 0.0 Source: author's calculations, WWWRT data, 2011 Figure 2.5 - Lack of Specific Skills The professional skills of managers generally meet the requirements of enterprises. However, this category of employees lacks leadership qualities, the ability to make non-standard decisions, as well as the ability to work with people (12.3%, 11.8% and 10.5% of enterprises, respectively, said this). This situation is alarming, because the listed skills are key for successful work in a leadership position.

The main skills that specialists lack are: the ability to solve problems, the ability to plan work, the ability to work with people. In addition, specialists lack professional skills relevant to the job.

Enterprises want to see the ability to make non-standard decisions among the skills of not only managers, but also specialists (this was stated by 11.8 and 11.2% of respondents, respectively).

In other words, businesses expect mid-level workers to be creative, to solve problems in an unconventional way.

The ability of specialists and workers to work independently is somewhat more in demand than the ability to cooperate.

This indicates that middle and lower-level workers are more expected to give back individually, that is, to take personal responsibility for the results of their work.

As for workers and lower-level specialists, every fifth enterprise is concerned about the lack of a conscientious attitude to work on their part. 15% of enterprises are dissatisfied with the level of professional skills of their workers, which again raises the question of the reasons for the lack of qualifications among the lower echelon of workers in Russian enterprises.

Note that a company may not indicate a lack of a particular skill in two completely different situations. On the one hand, in a situation where such a skill is sufficiently developed among employees. On the other hand, it may be that such a skill is simply not needed by company employees to work in their current position.

This discrepancy is especially relevant when interpreting the comparison of traditional and innovative companies.

Ceteris paribus, innovative enterprises are more likely than traditional ones to face skills shortages in all categories of workers. Thus, 38% of innovative companies say that all categories of employees have enough skills, while this figure is 45.2% for traditional companies. The share of innovative companies that report a lack of skills among managers and specialists is significantly higher compared to that of traditional enterprises (Table 2.2).

–  –  –

Since innovative companies are, on average, more successful in financial terms, they can afford to raise the wage rate for workers and employees of the lower level above the market, thereby attracting the most capable and qualified employees in this category of personnel. At the same time, an innovative company, developing a new technology or product, makes demand for non-standard skills of specialists and managers. The labor market may not have enough managers and specialists with the skills necessary for innovation. It turns out that firms will hire the staff that they have, at the same time declaring a lack of skills, and train their employees in the necessary competencies.

Traditional companies that are unable to set high wages are forced to report unmet skill needs across all workforce categories.

Next, we will consider what specific skills are demanded by both types of companies. Figures 1A-3A in Appendix B show in more detail the distribution of demand for missing skills across different categories of personnel to compare the situation in innovative and traditional companies. The charts show the share of companies that have a demand for a particular skill among the companies that report a shortage of skills. Thus, innovative enterprises are more in need of their leaders to speak a foreign language, have the ability to make non-standard decisions and be open to new ideas. To be successful, specialists in innovative enterprises more than those in traditional enterprises lack some high-order cognitive skills (the ability to solve problems) and a number of communication skills (the ability to work independently and in a group, leadership qualities). From the point of view of innovative enterprises, their workers and lower-level employees are more likely to lack the ability to solve problems. All in-demand skills point to the non-standard tasks and goals faced by employees of innovative companies.

Let's move on to additional vocational training at the enterprise as the main way to solve the problem of skills shortage at the expense of the company itself.

Additional training in Russian companies After identifying the skills needs, the employer faces the question of how to solve the problem of insufficient qualification of employees. There are two main ways that can be both interchangeable and complementary. The first way is hiring in the external labor market. However, the employer may face the fact that there are no workers with the required skill level, or the costs of hiring such an employee are too high for the company. The second method, which is of particular interest to this study, is additional vocational training for workers financed by firms.

Regardless of whether a company belongs to the class of traditional or innovative, the share of companies that train employees is higher among those that report unmet demand for employee skills (table 2.3). Among the companies that did not declare a shortage of skills, the share of trainers is also very high.

This means that many firms invest in the development of the human capital of their employees, even if the skills of the employees match the requirements of the company.

Learn, learn and learn

There is an old joke that V. I. Lenin initially did not plan to repeat the verb “learn” three times in the well-known call - he simply painted an inopportunely jammed pen. However, even if this were so, the words of Ilyich, written in the work “Reverse Direction in Russian Social Democracy” (1899, published in 1924), are very relevant for ... modern Germany in just such a modality. Studying at school, studying at the university and studying, getting postgraduate education and improving qualifications - this should be the slogan of any resident of the country who would like to receive a decent salary.

Postgraduate education and advanced training fully justify themselves. This conclusion was made by German analysts on the basis of an up-to-date comparative study of 87,214 salaries of employees with and without additional education. In the course of the study, experts analyzed the salaries of qualified specialists, specialists in economics and organization of industrial production from areas such as tax consulting, handicraft production and banking. The participants in this study were university graduates educational institutions with bachelor's, master's and master's degrees in business - MBA. Below, we present the results of this study to readers. They are so eloquent that they do not require comments.

Relationship between profession and income level

After graduating, you can expect an average of 36,200 euros per year. Having received additional qualifications, for example, in the field of economics of industrial production - a master's degree - already for 43,260 euros. In this case, the difference will be about 7060 euros.

Tax professionals earn an average of €31,650. After completing advanced training courses in tax specialization in the field of economics and organization of production, their salary increases by an average of 7,740 euros, reaching 39,400 euros.

A mechanical engineer in the industrial field earns about 28,900 euros. Having received a master's degree, he can already count on 38,000 euros on average, which is 9,100 euros more.

Bank clerks earn an average of 41,630 euros. The level of income of a bank employee who has completed a refresher course is on average 57,480 euros. The difference is 15,860 euros.

MBAfor university graduates

The most popular additional qualifications include the Master of Business Administration - Qualifying Master's Degree in Management (MBA).

A bachelor with an MBA degree earns an average of 57,520 euros per year, a master with an additional qualification in business administration - 73,270 euros.

Bachelors without an MBA degree receive an average of 45,875 euros, masters - about 54,130 euros. The difference is about 19,140 euros.

Investment in the future

“Postgraduate education and advanced training do not justify themselves immediately. As a rule, wage increases are gradual,” says Philip Bierbach, director of Gehalt.de, the leading career and salary research internet portal. Anyone who expects a salary increase immediately after receiving additional education may be very disappointed. Thus, the qualifying master's degrees in management and the field of economics of the organization of industrial production justify themselves only after a certain period of time. “Additional education and a scientific degree in any case increase the value of an employee in the labor market and are the key to opening the way to positions with higher wages,” emphasizes Philipp Birbach.