What types of risk arise during the operation of transport. Transport risks in the language of formulas and models. by area of ​​origin

?2

"INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT OF MARKETING AND FINANCE"

Test

by discipline: Risk Management

Topic: Transport risks

Completed by student: Sergey Pankov
Group: 5 EDM
Faculty: Business Administration

Checked by teacher: Anokhina D.D.
Grade:

Borisoglebsk
2007
Transport risks are the risks associated with the transportation of goods by transport: road, sea, river, rail, aircraft, etc.
In the company's activities, the risks are mainly related to the responsibility for the cargo. The risks include both traffic accidents (collision, overturning of the vehicle, etc.) and unlawful actions of third parties (theft, fraud, robbery, robbery), fires, overheating or hypothermia of cargo. In most cases, such situations cannot be taken into account and prevented, so the company insures against them.
However, not all risks are related to "force majeure" circumstances, and some of them can be managed. For example, to protect against unreliable business partners, before concluding an agreement, the company's lawyers always carefully study the documents confirming the legality of the existence of the prospective partner, find out if the organization is bankrupt, and if there is a risk that they will not be paid for the work, the deal is not concluded. When drawing up a contract for the performance of work, lawyers make sure that the work is completely in the legal field, even if it will bring some losses. Usually this is due to the tax system, and it is better to pay all taxes than to lose more later. Transport companies evaluate possible risks when drawing up an application for transportation, which takes into account all force majeure circumstances and possible losses if they occur.
The classification of transport risks is made depending on the terms of the contract, which indicates which party is responsible for the cargo at a specific transportation interval.
With the help of W. Stanton's table, it is possible to carry out the optimal choice of the mode of transport, depending on the specifics of a particular product, to minimize the transport risk:

№	Selection criterion	Kind of transport
		Zheleznodoro zhny	water		road		pipeline		air
1.	Speed	Medium	Lowest	high		Low		The tallest
2.	Level costs	Middle	lowest	Big		Short		lowest
3.	Delivery reliability	Medium	Low	Good		high		Medium
4.	Possible range of goods	The biggest	Big enough	Middle		Very limited		Partially limited
5.	Number of markets served	big	Limited	Unlimited		Very limited		Above the average
6.	Considerations for goods	The most convenient for large volumes	Best for large volumes	Goods with a high price, requiring delivery in a short time		Liquid and gaseous products		Expensive and perishable products

Table 1. Choice of mode of transport in order to reduce the level of transport risks.
Risks are very diverse, and the ways to manage them have their own specifics in different types of activities. Experts from various industries identified the most significant risks in their field.
There is some relationship between the total annual mileage of the car fleet and transport risks. It was proposed by Robin Smeed (Fig. 2 and 3).

Rice. 2. Smeed's law in coordinates "motorization - transport risks" (original Smeed's chart)

Rice. 3. Trajectory of transport risks in the Russian Federation
"Coordinates" of countries Western Europe, USA, Japan, Australia, other developed countries lie below the Smeed curve. At the same time, the "coordinates" of Brazil, Russia, India, China and, especially, Iran, Nigeria, Venezuela are located much higher than the same line.
Numerous attempts have been made to refute the "Smeed's Laws" on the basis of national statistics of the most developed countries (Great Britain, Sweden), or, on the contrary, using data from low- and middle-income countries.
The most productive modifications of Smeed's model are associated with the replacement of indirect measures of the scale of the national transport system, expressed in terms of population (P) and level of motorization (N / P), with a direct measure - the total annual mileage of the car fleet. Unfortunately, very few countries in the world have regular and reliable data on this indicator in their national statistics.
Transport risks in foreign trade transactions
When concluding foreign trade transactions, there are a number of risks associated with the spatial remoteness between buyers and sellers. A significant contribution to clarifying the problems associated with these risks and unifying the practice of avoiding them was made by some international trade and economic organizations and forums - primarily the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris.
In 1936, the first international IN-COTERMS rules were published, which precisely define the obligations of the subjects of the transaction, the distribution of risks and costs between buyers and sellers in foreign trade transactions. Later, in 1953, 1967, 1980, 1988 and 1990, under the influence of the development of transport and communication technology, some additions and amendments were adopted.
The latest changes (1990) are the result, first of all, of the need to adapt the terms to the increasing use of computers and communications in the processing of foreign trade and transport operations. In addition, changes were also needed in connection with the development of transport technology, and more precisely, with the expanded use of containers and combined land and sea transport.
The number of terms, which increased from nine (in editions of 1936 and 1953) to fourteen (in 1980), fell to thirteen (1990). The latest decrease is due to the merging of the terms FOR/FOT and FOB airport into the term "Free Carrier Arranged Place", referring to all modes of transport.
Of all the types of risk in foreign trade, the risks in transport are most accurately, fully and generally regulated, despite the numerous difficult situations that sometimes counterparties find themselves in during international transport.
The regulation of INCOTERMS, edited by the International Chamber of Commerce, is the most important contribution in this direction. In the new edition of INCOTERMS, trade terms are classified in a new way that makes them easier to understand and use. In particular, they are grouped into four categories: "E", "F", "C" and "D".
The "E" group, which includes the condition that the seller delivers the goods to his own premises, includes only the term Yas works.
Group "F" contains terms whereby the seller must hand over the goods to a carrier named by the buyer. This group includes the terms FCA, FAS and FOB.
The third group of terms, whose names begin with the letter "C", means that the exporter must conclude a contract of carriage, but not assume the risk of accidental loss or damage to the goods. This group includes the terms CFR, CIF, CPT, CIP.
The fourth group of terms is category "D". They mean that the seller assumes all the risk associated with the delivery of the goods to the country of destination. This group includes the terms DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP.
The universal use of terms in all parts of the world inevitably creates some conflicts between the regulation of INCOTERMS and local laws and trade customs. With this in mind, it is desirable that the parties to a foreign trade transaction mutually inform each other about the peculiarities of entering into an agreement between them by means of suitable clauses. These special provisions in individual contracts take precedence over INCOTERMS if they conflict with them.
In some cases, it is not possible at the time of the conclusion of the contract to determine with certainty the place where the seller will hand over the goods to the carrier, as well as the exact place where the carrier will hand over the goods to the buyer. In such a case, some more general wording like "in the area of........" could be used and it could be agreed that the buyer would later have the right or obligation to specify the specific place of transfer.
If the buyer accepts such an obligation, its failure to perform may entail liability for the risk arising therefrom. On the other hand, if the buyer does not exercise this right, the seller will have the right to choose a place that is in his interests, and not in the interests of the buyer.
In many cases, it is more advantageous for the buyer to arrange for the goods to be inspected before they are handed over to the seller for carriage. Unless the contract provides otherwise, in such cases the costs of such verification shall be charged to the buyer. If the pre-loading inspection is not carried out at the order of the buyer, but in compliance with any export regulations in the seller's country, the costs must be charged to the latter.
The obligations of the seller and the buyer when using certain terms in supply contracts and the risk that may be caused are specified in detail in the INCOTERMS edition of the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris. Their verbatim quoting would be redundant, and an abbreviated statement could lead to misinterpretation of individual terms with all possible and impossible consequences, therefore, when concluding contracts, it is advisable to use the full texts of the terms. A brief explanation of some of the most commonly used terms can be given.
1. "EXW" - "Ex works ........ (named place)" - from the factory (an agreed place). This term means that the obligation and the risk are borne by the seller until the moment when he leaves the goods at his premises at the disposal of the buyer. The latter assumes the risk and costs of delivering the goods to their warehouses or production facilities.
2. FREE CARRIE ......... (named place) "- free carrier ... (agreed place) means that the risk and liability of the seller ends when he has handed over the goods at a certain place to a carrier named by the buyer. C From this point onwards, the buyer is responsible for the goods and the costs of the goods.
3. “FAC”. "FREE ALONG SIDE SHIP ……. (named port destination) - Free ship length ....... (cargo port is negotiated). This term means that the risk and obligations of the seller and buyer are shared, when the goods are unloaded from the ship on which they were transported.
4. “FOB” – FREE ON BOARD .........(named port of shipment) at the cargo port. After that, all costs and risk - at the expense of the buyer.
5. “CFR” “CJST AND FREIGHT………. (named port of destination)"- cost and freight paid .......... (port of destination is negotiated) means that the seller has an obligation to pay costs and freight for transporting the goods to the port of discharge, but the risk of accidental loss or damage of the goods, as well as all additional costs arising from the event following the loading of the goods on board the ship, are borne by the buyer after the goods have crossed the side of the ship at the cargo port.
6. “CIF” - "COST. INSURANCE, FREIGHT .......... (named port of declination) - cost, insurance, freight ..... (discharge port is discussed) means that the seller has those the same obligations as under the previous CFK term, but in addition he must provide insurance against risk during transportation
7. "CPT" - "CARRIAGE PAID TO ..... (named place of destination)" - carriage paid to .... (destination agreed), means that the seller pays the freight for transportation to the place of delivery of the goods specified in the contract. Once the seller has handed over the goods to the carrier, the buyer assumes the risk of the goods.
8. "CIP" - "CARRIGE AND INSURANCE PAID TO (named place of destination)" - carriage and insurance paid to ..., (destination discussed) means that the seller has the same obligations as with the CPT term, but in addition he must secure and insure the goods during transport
9. "DAF" - "DELIVERED AT FRONTIERA ....... (named piece)" - delivered to the border ....... (the place of delivery at the border was discussed), means that the obligations lie with the seller until the moment when the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer at the agreed place at the frontier of either the exporter's country or the importer's country.
10. "DES" - "DELIVERED EX SHIP ......... (named port of destination)" - delivered from the ship ........ (discharged port) means that the seller has an obligation to transfer unload the goods to the buyer from the ship at the agreed port.
11. "DES" - "DELIVERED EX QUAY (DUTY PAID) ........... (named port of destination)" - delivered from the pier with duty paid to the agreed port of discharge means that the seller is obliged to transfer the goods at the moment when he is at the pier of the port of unloading.
12. "DDU" - "DELIVERED DUTY UNPAID ........ (named place of destination)" - delivered without payment of duties .............. (destination agreed) means that the seller bears the risk and costs to the agreed place in the importing country.
13. "DDP" - "DELIVERED DUTY PAID ............ (named place of destination)" - delivered with duty paid ....................... (destination agreed in the importing country) means that the seller must hand over the goods when they are accessible at the agreed place in the buyer's country after payment of the relevant customs duties.
The risk of accidental loss or damage to the goods passes from the seller to the buyer at the moment when the seller fulfills his obligation to transfer the goods. If the buyer delays acceptance of the goods and thereby delays the passing of risk, it is understood in all terms that the transfer of risk may take place before acceptance of the goods if it does not take place in accordance with the contract or the buyer has not given his instructions in connection with this.

Bibliography
1. Adams J. G. Risk and freedom: a road record. – M.: INFRA-M, 2004.
2. Negashev E.V. Analysis of the company's finances in market conditions. Moscow: Higher school, 2002.
3. Utkin E.A. Financial management. Association of Authors and Publishers "TANDEM", 2002.4. Negashev E.V. Analysis of the company's finances in market conditions. Moscow: Higher school, 2002.5. 5ballov.ru

For the regulatory distribution of VEO risks between sellers and buyers arising from the transfer of goods from one to another, it is advisable for the parties to international sales contracts to use the Incoterms-2000 rules, according to which all transport risks are classified into four groups E, F, C and D .

Group E includes the situation when the supplier (seller) holds the goods on his own warehouses(Ex Works, EXW). The risks are assumed by the supplier and his bank until the goods are accepted by the buyer. The risk of transportation from the seller's premises to the final destination is already assumed by the buyer and his bank.

Group F contains three specific situations of responsibility and risk transfer:

a) FCA(Free carrier) - means that the risk and responsibility of the seller (and his bank) are transferred to the buyer (intermediary) at the time of transfer of the goods at the agreed place;

b) FAS(Free Alongside Ship) - responsibility and risk for the goods are transferred from the supplier (and his bank) to the buyer in the port specified by the contract;

c) FOB(Free on Board) - the seller (and his bank) relieve themselves of responsibility after unloading the goods from the ship.

Group C includes situations where the exporter, the seller, his bank enter into a transportation agreement with the buyer, but do not assume any risk:

a) CFR(Cost and Freight) - the seller and his bank pay the cost of transportation to the port of arrival, but the risk and responsibility for the integrity and safety of the goods, as well as additional costs, are borne by the buyer and his bank. The transfer of risks and responsibilities occurs at the time the ship is loaded;

b) CIF(Cost, Insurance and Freight) - in addition to obligations, as in the case of CFR, the seller and his bank must provide and pay for risk insurance during transportation;

c) CPT(Carrier Paid To) - the seller and the buyer (and their banks) share risks and responsibilities. At a certain point (usually some intermediate point of transportation) the risks are completely transferred from the seller to the buyer and his bank;

d) CIP(Freight / Carriage and Insurance Paid to) - the risks are transferred from the seller to the buyer at a certain intermediate point of transportation, but, in addition, the seller provides and pays the cost of insurance of the goods.

Group D includes situations where all transport risks are borne by the seller:

a) DAF(Delivered At Frontier) - means that the seller assumes risks up to a certain state border. Further, the risks are assumed by the buyer and his bank;

b) DES(Delivered Ex Ship) - the transfer of risks by the seller to the buyer takes place on board the ship;

c) DEQ(Delivered Ex Quay) - the transfer of risks occurs at the time of arrival of the goods at the port of loading;

d) DDU(Delivered Duty Unpaid) - the seller assumes transport risks for damage, loss, theft and other goods to a place specified by the contract (most often a warehouse, usually customs) on the territory of the buyer;

e) DDP(Delivered Duty Paid) - the seller is responsible for transport risks to a certain place in the territory of the buyer, but the latter pays them.

On fig. Figure 2.3 presents the seller's risks (left side of the strip chart) and the buyer's risks (right, shaded) for all 13 situations of the four transport risk groups. The vertical lines show the location of the critical transfer point.

Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation

FGOU VPO "Penza State Agricultural Academy"

Department of Entrepreneurship and Law

abstract

on the topic:

«Production and industry risks»

Completed: student 441 gr.

Kozlova A.M.

Checked by: Kadykova O.F.

Penza, 2009

Introduction

1. Production risks

1.1. R&D risks

1.2. direct production risks

1.3. Transport risks

1.4. Realization risks

2. Industry risks

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

In conditions market economy risk is a key element of entrepreneurship. An entrepreneur who knows how to take risks in time is often rewarded.

Production risk is associated with the production of products, goods and services; with the implementation of any type of production activity, in the course of which entrepreneurs face problems of inadequate use of raw materials, rising costs, increasing losses of working time, and the use of new production methods.

Industry risk is the probability of losses as a result of changes in the economic condition of the industry and the extent of these changes both within the industry and in comparison with other industries.

The purpose of this abstract is to consider production and industry risks.

1. Production risks

Production risks are a type of risks that arise in the process of research and development (R & D), production, sales and after-sales service of products (services).
According to its definition, production risks can be divided into the following categories:
1) R&D risks. Often this group of production risks is called technical risks;
2) direct production risks;
3) transport risks;
4) realization risks. This group of risks is often referred to as marketing or commercial risks.

1.1. R&D risks (technical risks)
R&D risks (technical risks) are based on the fact that in the course of carrying out these works there is always a possibility of not achieving the desired (previously planned) results (losses).
Most experts believe that this group of risks can be caused by two main groups of factors: objective and subjective.
TO objective factors factors affecting possible losses during R&D include those factors the solution of which is within the competence of the company (for example, problems with financing laboratory research, cost overruns during research), insufficiently new experimental equipment, etc.)
Subjective factors The presence of technical risk is due to reasons beyond the control of the enterprise. In the most general form, the reasons for their occurrence can be as follows:
1) Obtaining negative results after carrying out research work planned and funded by the interested firm. The occurrence of this situation may entail the refusal of the company to engage in the previously planned direction of entrepreneurial activity. In this case, significant adjustments must be made to the strategic plans of this enterprise, and in some cases, priorities are revised;
2) non-achievement of pre-planned technical parameters in the course of design and technological development of innovations. This poses a significant risk to the firm, but it should be noted that its loss rate under this outcome will be lower than if a negative result were obtained. In this case, we can talk about relative losses, which will be equal to the difference in losses between the negative and the result obtained;
3) the results obtained are ahead of the technical and technological capabilities of production (including the level of training and retraining of personnel) necessary for their development, i.e. the level of results is higher than the level of the current state of production. With such an outcome, the losses can be similar to the losses with a negative result in the event that the implementation of the results is impossible within the maximum allowable time, or, by analogy with the second reason, they will be the difference between the zero and the result obtained;
4) the results obtained are ahead of the technical and technological capabilities of the predicted consumers of new products;
5) the occurrence of side or delayed manifestations of problems when using new technologies and products that cannot be solved at the current level of development of science and technology (for example, problems of interaction with the environment and humans).
The degree of technical risks can be assessed, mainly by an expert method. This conclusion is based on the fact that the specificity of their forecasting is the lack of information and, as a rule, the absence of similar developments.
The level of technical risks can be reduced mainly by attracting the maximum external information potential to innovative projects, counterparties from among the best scientific and technical centers, the most advanced manufacturing, engineering, service and consulting firms, due to the internationalization of technically risky projects, as well as connecting to them governmental and intergovernmental organizations that control the fields of science, technology, education, ecology, etc.
The main limitation for reducing the level of technical risks are financial and informational restrictions. In addition, it is important that the company's contacts are limited, which would allow it to reduce the risk. The last limitation is quite relevant, especially for small and medium-sized firms, which is a rather big brake on their participation in such work.

1.2.Directly production risks
Directly production risks represent the main group of production risks, they consist of:
* risks in the strategy development process;
* supply risks;
* risks of violation of planned deadlines;
* risks of conflicts with the interests of maintaining the current activities of the company and its other areas.

Group risks arising in the process of developing a firm's strategy, consists of the following:
* risks of unreasonable prioritization of the overall economic and market strategy of the company;
* risks of incorrect forecast of the conjuncture in all or individual markets for capital purchases and supplies;
* risks of inadequate assessment of the needs of the sphere of consumption and own production.

Supply risks consist of risks:
* non-finding of suppliers of unique resources required for this area of ​​business activity;
* failure to find suppliers at projected purchase prices; failure of planned suppliers to conclude supply contracts;
* the need to conclude contracts on terms that differ from the most acceptable or usual for the company and industry;
* delaying the procurement campaign;
* conclusion of contracts for the volume of current supply of production, not secured by the sale of finished products.

The group of risks of violation of planned deadlines consists of the following risks:
* non-compliance with the planned spending schedule;
* non-compliance with the planned income schedule.
Risks associated with conflicts of interest in maintaining the current activities of the company and its other areas.

Risks of conflicts with the interests of maintaining the current activities of the company and its other areas The main source of risks of conflicts with the interests of maintaining the current activities of the company and its other areas is the likelihood that in the process economic activity Despite the presence of priority areas, for a number of reasons, there may be a redistribution of funds to finance the current operations of the company, cover current deficits, and finance other activities.

Thus, this group of risks is mainly non-systemic, and therefore, the company has the opportunity to avoid them altogether in the course of its business activities.

1.3 Transport risks
Transport risks are of particular interest due to their presence in almost all types and at all stages. entrepreneurial activity. There is an international standard for their classification by liability, which was developed by the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris in 1919 and unified in 1936, the last changes and additions to the classification were made in 1990.
First group transport risks - this is group E. The risks related to this group suggest the existence of such a situation when the supplier company keeps goods intended for external use (for example, sale) in its own warehouses. In this case, the risks associated with the storage of goods (even after the moment when the money for it has already been received) are borne by the seller (supplier). After that, when the goods are in the process of being transported from the supplier to the final destination, the buyer assumes the risk.
Second group transport risks (F) are divided into three subgroups (FCA, FAS, FOB), which are distinguished in accordance with the specifics of the moment the goods are transferred from the seller to the buyer:

* FCA (Free Carrier A - name of the place) - risk and liability
the seller are transferred to the buyer at the time of transfer of the goods to
a predetermined location; » FAS (Free Along Side Ship) - the risk and responsibility of the seller for
the goods are transferred to the buyer at the time of transfer of the goods to
pre-set port;
* FOB (Free On Board) - the risk and responsibility of the seller for the goods are transferred to the buyer at the time of unloading the goods from the ship.
Third group(C) includes situations where the seller and the buyer enter into a contract for the transport of goods, but do not assume any risk. This group includes four subgroups (CFR, GIF, CPT, CIP):
* CFR (Cost and Freight) - the seller pays the cost of transportation to the port of arrival, but the risk and responsibility for the integrity and safety of the goods and additional costs are borne by the buyer, while the transfer of risks and responsibility for them occurs at the time of loading the ship;
* CIF (Cost, Insurance, Freight) - this type of risk means that in addition to obligations from the CFR case, the seller must provide and pay for risk insurance during transportation;
* CPT (Carriage Paid To) - the seller and the buyer share (not necessarily in equal shares) possible risks;
* CIP (Carriage and Insurance Paid To) - the risks are transferred from the seller to the buyer at a certain intermediate point of transportation, while the seller provides and pays the cost of insurance of the goods.
Fourth group transport risks (D) provides for such situations in which all the risks associated with the transportation of goods fall on the seller. This group is divided into five subgroups (DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP):
* DAF (Delivered At Frontier) - the seller assumes risks up to a certain state border, after which they pass to the buyer;
* DES (Delivered Ex Ship) - the transfer of risks by the seller to the buyer takes place on board the ship;
* DEQ (Delivered Ex Quay) - the transfer of risks occurs from the seller to the buyer at the moment the goods arrive at the port of loading;
* DDU (Delivered Duty Unpaid) - the seller assumes all risks associated with transportation until the goods are shipped to the buyer's warehouse;
* DDP (Delivered Duty Paid) - the seller is responsible for the risks to a certain (previously agreed in the contract) place on the territory of the buyer, but the latter pays for their insurance.
In the event that, for any reason, the buyer cannot pay for the goods within the terms specified in the contract, the risks may pass to him earlier than the terms specified in this classification.
It should be noted that the presence of an international standard for the classification of transport risks does not mean that when concluding an agreement (contract) between the seller and the buyer, the risks are distributed according to one of the possible scenarios described in this classifier.
Transport risks are closely related to supply and marketing risks due to the fact that they can become their sources. The degree of transport risks can be significantly reduced with the right choice of mode of transport, depending on the specifics of the transported goods.
The level of transport risks largely depends on the probability of occurrence of force majeure circumstances in those regions to which (or through which) the goods are transported.

1.4 Implementation risks

Implementation risks arise at the stage of selling products. It implies the possibility of incurring losses or losing profits under the influence of such factors as increased competition, changes in the balance of supply and demand, increased tariffs for transportation and storage costs, and a decrease in the quality of goods. In addition, implementation risks are also associated with the presence of numerous intermediaries who, buying products at artificially low prices, then sell them several times more expensive. An example of realization risk is the situation with the sunflower seed market. Agricultural producers, attracted in 1999 by the high price of their sale, increased the production of sunflower seeds. As a result, there was a glut of the market with this type of product and prices fell from 4.5 thousand rubles. for 1 ton in 1999 to 2.5 thousand rubles. in 2000, or 1.8 times.

2. Industry risks

Industry Risk- is the probability of losses as a result of changes in the economic state of the industry and the degree of these changes both within the industry and in comparison with other industries. When analyzing industry risk, the following factors should be taken into account:
> activities of firms in this industry, as well as related industries for a certain (selected) period of time;
> to what extent the activities of firms in this industry are stable compared to the country's economy as a whole;
> what are the performance of various entrepreneurial firms within the same industry, is there a significant discrepancy in the results.
The stage of the industrial life cycle of the industry and the intra-industry environment of competition are directly related to the work of enterprises in the industry, and, consequently, to the level of industry risk. At the same time, the level of intra-industry competition is a source of information about the stability of entrepreneurial firms in a given industry in relation to firms in other industries and, as a rule, serves as an assessment of industry risk. The level of intra-industry competition can be judged from the following information:
> degree of price and non-price competition;
> the ease or difficulty of the organization entering the industry;
> availability or lack of close and competitively priced substitutes;
> market power of buyers;
> marketability of suppliers;
> political and social environment.
However, the listed conditions in which the industry operates are subject to unexpected, sometimes abrupt changes. Therefore, entrepreneurial firms need to constantly consider industry risk in all activities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to note that the future of the domestic economy, which is now largely uncertain, “depends not only on overall strategy development and coordination of actions of different levels of management, but also from organizational measures that reduce the negative consequences of the risk, compensating for the likely costs. The inevitability of risks in any activity is due to the action of the objective laws of the market mechanism. Such a view is based on the fact that risk is the danger of failure, unforeseen losses in the face of the uncertainty of the economic situation.

Bibliography

Algin, A.P. Facets of economic risk / A.P. Algin. - M., 2001

Kadykova, O.F. Management of risks: tutorial/ O.F. Kadykova.- Penza: RIO PGSKhA, 2007.

Korolev, Yu.B. Management in the agro-industrial complex / Yu.B. Korolev, V.D. Korotnev, G.N. Kochetova and others; ed. Yu.B. Queen. – M.: KolosS, 2003.

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Transport risks - these are the risks that arise in the process of transporting goods by various modes of transport. This type of risk is inherent in almost all types and all stages of entrepreneurial activity.

The classification of transport risks is carried out in accordance with international standards developed by the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris in 1919 and unified in 1936. According to this standard, transport risks are divided into four groups according to the degree of responsibility (E, F, C and D).

Group E contains risks associated with the situation when the supplier company keeps goods intended for outdoor use (for example, sales) in its own warehouses and assumes the risk associated with storing the goods until it is accepted by the buyer (even if the money for the goods has already been received ). From this moment until the end of the transport process to the destination, the risk is assumed by the buyer.

Group F includes three subgroups depending on the specifics of the moment of transfer of goods from the seller to the buyer:

- FCA (Free Carrier A - name of the place) - the risk and responsibility of the seller is transferred to the buyer at the time of delivery of the goods at a predetermined place;

- FAS (Free Along Side Ship) - the risk and responsibility of the seller for the goods are transferred to the buyer at the time of delivery of the goods at the pre-determined port;

- FOB (Free on Board) - the risk and responsibility of the seller for the goods are transferred to the buyer at the time of shipment of the goods from the ship.

Group C covers situations where the seller and the buyer enter into a contract for the transport of goods, but do not assume any risk.

This group includes the following subgroups:

- CFR (Cost and Freight) - the seller pays the cost of transportation to the port of arrival, but the risk and responsibility for the safety and integrity of the goods and additional costs are assumed by the buyer; the transfer of responsibility and risks occurs at the time of loading the ship;

- CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight) - assumes that, in addition to CFR, the seller must additionally provide and pay for risk insurance during transportation;

- CPT (Carrier Paid To) - the seller and the buyer share risks and responsibilities among themselves, not necessarily in equal shares;

- SIR (Carriage and Insurance Paid To) - risks are transferred from the seller to the buyer at a certain intermediate point of transportation, while the seller provides and pays the cost of insurance of the goods.

Group D covers situations where all the risks associated with the transport of goods, beret on the seller:

- DAF (Delivered At Frontier) - the seller assumes the risks up to a certain state border, after which they pass to the buyer

- DES (DAF (Delivered Ex Ship) - the transfer of risks from the seller to the buyer takes place on board the ship;

- DEQ (Delivered Ex Quay) - the transfer of risks from the seller to the buyer occurs at the time of arrival of the goods at the port of loading;

- DDU (Delivered Duty Unpaid) - the seller assumes all risks associated with transportation until the goods are shipped to the buyer's warehouse;

- DAF (Delivered Duty Paid) - the seller is responsible for risks up to a certain (specified in the contract) place on the territory of the buyer, but the latter pays for their insurance.

If for some reason the buyer cannot pay for the goods within the time period specified in the contract, the risks may be transferred to him earlier than the terms specified in the classification. Availability international standard classification provides for the possibility of distribution of transport risks between the seller and the buyer when concluding a contract and according to other scenarios given in this classifier.

Transport risks are closely related to supply, marketing and other risks. The level of transport risks is not always predictable due to the possibility of force majeure. The reduction of transport risks is achieved primarily by right choice carrier, taking into account the specifics of the transported goods.

• Musyanova Marina Yurievna, student
• Volga State University of Service
• Nasakina Liliya Arkadevna, Candidate of Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor
• Volga region State University service

• CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT RISK
• RISK FACTORS
• TRANSPORT RISK
• COMMERCIAL RISK

This article considers the transport risk as a separate element of commercial risk. The classification of transport risks according to the degree of their responsibility and factors characterizing this species risk. A scientifically based risk classification allows you to clearly determine the place of each of them in common system and identify approaches to managing them.

• Risks of non-payment of wages to employees of the organization and measures of responsibility for their occurrence
• Features of the application of ISA in the audit of income and expenses of the organization
• Problems of the formation of the wage fund and the direction of the analysis of the use of funds for wages in the organization
• Analysis of income and expenses as an economic basis for effective management of various types of activities of the organization

The most important feature of entrepreneurship is the presence of risk, both at the stage of creating one's own business, and during the further functioning of the enterprise. Many business decisions have to be made under conditions of uncertainty, when it is necessary to choose a course of action from several possible options, the implementation of which is difficult to predict. Any sphere of human activity is inherent in risk, which is associated with a variety of conditions and factors that affect both the positive and negative outcomes of people's decisions.

Risk is generally characterized as the risk of unforeseen loss of expected profit, income or property, due to an accidental change in conditions. economic activity, adverse circumstances. For organizations whose activities are related to the transportation of goods, such a type of risk as transport is of great importance.

Transport risk is the risk associated with the transportation of goods by transport: road, sea, river, rail, aircraft.

Given the importance and specificity of transport risk as part of commercial risk, it is distinguished from commercial risk. Its classification was first given by the International chamber of commerce in Paris in 1919 and unified in 1936. Currently, various transport risks are classified according to their degree of responsibility in four groups: E, F, C, D.

Group E includes one situation where the supplier (seller) keeps the goods in their own warehouses (Ex Works). The risk is assumed by the supplier until the goods are accepted by the buyer. The risk of transportation from the seller's premises to the final destination is already assumed by the buyer.

Transport risk group F contains three specific situations of transfer of responsibility and, accordingly, risks:

• FCA - the risk and responsibility of the seller is transferred to the buyer at the time of delivery of the goods at the agreed place;
• FAS - responsibility and risk for the goods are transferred from the seller to the buyer at the port (point) specified by the contract;
• FOB – the seller declines responsibility after unloading the goods (after unloading from the vessel).

Risk group C includes situations where the exporter-seller enters into a transportation contract with the buyer, but does not assume any risk. The situations for risk group C are as follows:

• CFK - the seller pays the cost of transportation to the point (port) of arrival, but the risk and responsibility for the safety of the goods and additional costs are borne by the buyer;
• CIF - in addition to obligations for the case of CFK (previous), the seller provides and pays for risk insurance during transportation;
• CPT - the seller and the buyer share risks and responsibilities. At some point (usually at some intermediate point in the journey), the risks completely pass from the seller to the buyer;
• CIP - risks are transferred from the seller to the buyer at a certain intermediate point of transportation, but, in addition, the seller provides and pays the cost of insurance of the goods.

Risk group D means that all transport risks are borne by the seller. The situations for the risks of this group are as follows:

• DAF - the seller assumes risks up to a certain state border, and then the risks are assumed by the buyer;
• DES - the transfer of risks by the seller to the buyer occurs on board the vessel (transport);
• DEQ - the transfer of risks by the seller to the buyer occurs at the time of arrival of the goods at the port (point) of unloading;
• DDV - the seller assumes transport risks to the place specified by the contract on the territory of the buyer (most often it is a warehouse);
• DDP - the seller is responsible for the transport risks to a certain place in the buyer's territory, but they are paid by the buyer.

Transport risks are divided into hull and cargo risks. Casco transport risks involve insurance of air, sea, river vessels, railway rolling stock and automobiles during movement, parking, downtime or repair. Cargo transport risks imply insurance of goods transported by this transport.

Transport risks are very diverse, which the insurer must take into account when assessing the risk that he is going to take on.

There are several main factors that characterize the transport risk (Table 1).

Table 1. Factors characterizing transport risk

	Characteristic
	Cargo presents a risk depending on the type and characteristic features cargo. Not all types of cargo are equally easily damaged, so the premium is set depending on how much risk this or that type of goods carries. For example, glass is at greater risk of damage than massive goods made from iron.
Cargo packaging	Most of the risks that the shipment itself poses can be eliminated with secure packaging, such as a crate instead of a cardboard box.
Vehicle	How vehicle adapted to the goods of this type and quality. When transported on a ship, “deck” cargo, for example, will be at a much higher risk than cargo in the holds. Cargo, as a rule, is carried along with other goods, the smell, taste and other characteristics of which pose a certain risk.
Itinerary	There is also the question of the length of the route, of loading and unloading along the way (this usually represents an additional risk); about the quality of the roads on which the vehicle moves, about whether the load passes the place heightened danger etc.
Climatic conditions	Transportation of goods in winter and summer usually involves a different degree of risk. In any case, consideration should be given to whether the cargo is affected by temperature fluctuations.
Terms of sale	The terms of sale make it possible to determine when the risk begins and ends.

Any economic decision is associated with the choice of the best available option, it inevitably implies the onset of a risk situation, this also applies to transport risk, therefore, the organization must pay considerable attention to risk management and root cause analysis. The impact of risk on the performance of economic entities decreases with increasing awareness of the content of the risk and the factors of its occurrence.

Bibliography

1. The Russian Federation. Laws. Civil Code RF. Part two [Text]: federal law No. 14 - FZ; adopted by the State Duma of the Federal Assembly on January 26, 1996;
2. Nasakina, L.A. New approaches to the assessment of economic activity in the conditions of the development of market relations [Text] / L.A. Nasakina // Vestnik NGIEI. - 2015. - No. 3 (46). - S. 70-74;
3. Nasakina, L.A. The concept of entrepreneurial risk [Text] / L.A. Nasakina, A.A. Udalov // In the collection: Breakthrough economic reforms in conditions of risk and uncertainty. Collection of articles of the International scientific-practical conference. - 2014. - S. 137-140;
4. Savitskaya G. B. Analysis of the effectiveness and risks of entrepreneurial activity: methodological aspects. Monograph / G.V. Savitskaya. - M.: NITs INFRA-M, 2014. - 272 p.