With the help of the concept of social stratification (from lat. stratum- layer, stratification) sociologists try to describe and explain the fact of social inequality, the subordination of large groups of people, the existence of social order.

The generally accepted position is the eternity of inequality in society, the predetermined differences between social subjects, which ultimately takes shape in the hierarchy system adopted in this society, in which all members of society are included and against which they act and evaluate their own and others' behavioral practices.

social stratificationis a set of functionally related statuses and roles (reduced to strata), reflecting the vertical projection of the social system, which in turn indicates the inequality of subjects in the social hierarchy. At the same time, the concept of inequality is devoid of an ethical-chain character (although this is difficult to accept) and is seen as a natural and necessary way of organizing and functioning of society. In this regard, absolute equality is assessed as a detrimental factor for the social system, although several models of universal equality can be mentioned that do not bring the death of the social hierarchy - this is Roman law (“everyone is equal before the law”) and religion (“everyone is equal before God”) However, their implementation in practice is far from perfect.

From the standpoint of the theory of social stratification, society is a hierarchy (pyramid) of strata (social strata), which consist of carriers of the same or similar statuses and roles. The concept of a stratum was transferred to sociology from geology, where it denoted a geological layer of rock when describing a cut of the earth. It was applied in sociology in the 1920s. 20th century P.A. Sorokin, who developed and systematized a number of concepts that formed the basis of the theory of social stratification.

The concept of social stratification as inequality should be distinguished from the concept of social differentiation, which implies all sorts of social differences, not necessarily related to inequality. For example, one can distinguish groups of philatelists and football fans whose pastime forms these groups, but is in no way connected with social inequality or something like that. In this regard, the question arises about the foundations of social stratification, about the initial prerequisites for the emergence of a system of inequality in society. Russian researcher G.A. Avanesova proposes to refer to such grounds:

• social connections of people(as a natural basis for the processes of stratification of society), which always involve the formation of hierarchization over time: leaders and subordinates, authorities and outcasts, leaders and followers are singled out;
• value-symbolic basis, which is associated with the comprehension of social norms and prescriptions, endowing social roles with specific evaluative content and meaning;
• norm(motivationoppo-repressive basis) as a boundary within which the ordering of social ties and value ideas takes place;
• bionatural and anthropological qualities: “... Few of the researchers object to the very fact of the continuity of the functional-hierarchical nature of social organization in the natural environment and the animal world.<...>Many anthropologists, using the example of pre-modern and surviving archaic communities, have traced a positive relationship between, firstly, the territory and the natural environment, secondly, the satisfaction of the initial (primary) human needs, and, thirdly, forms of interaction, value-stimulating systems.<...>Such anthropological qualities of people as gender, physical, psychological abilities, as well as signs mastered from the first days of life - family-role ties, ethno-national stereotypes, etc., also acquire a great influence on stratification processes. one .

The emergence of ideas about social stratification is associated with the development of ideas about social structure, when it became clear that “all relations in society - between systems and communities of different types or between social groups and specific people - are located in systems of different ranks. Such stable types of institutional connections, specific behavior of people give society stability. Understanding this necessitated the creation of a new categorical-conceptual apparatus, with the help of which it was possible to scientifically describe and understand the vertical projection of society, inequality. The main concepts of the theory of social stratification include: "social class", "stratum", "social status", "social role", "social mobility".

social class(from lat. classis- group) in a broad sense - a large group of people as part of society. The basis of this group is a certain unifying (common) feature, which entails the similarity of interests and behavioral practices of those who belong to this class.

The inequality of people in the system of organization and functioning of society was already obvious to Plato and Aristotle, who explained and justified this fact. In the VI century. BC e. Roman emperor Servius Tullius divided his subjects into five classes based on wealth in order to streamline the process of army formation.

The theoretical discovery of classes took place in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. thanks to the works of French historians F. Guizot,

O. Thierry, O. Mignet and others, who, on the basis of bourgeois revolutions, approached the concepts of class interest, class struggle, class as subjects of history. The English political economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo tried to clarify the economic reasons for the emergence and functioning of social classes. This vector of research was continued in Marxism, which made the greatest contribution to the development of class theory.

K. Marx proceeded from the fact that the reasons proposed before him for the appearance of classes (mental and physical differences of people, different levels of income, violence and wars) do not reflect the real state of affairs, since classes are socio-economic formations: the appearance, development and disappearance social classes is determined by the level and specifics of material production. Classes arise as a result of the development of productive forces, the division of labor and the formation of private property relations during the period of the decomposition of the tribal system. These processes led to the separation of agriculture from cattle breeding, and later - crafts from agriculture, to the emergence of surplus product and private property, which determined the social differentiation of people in society, which became the basis for the formation of classes.

The materialistic analysis of history allowed K. Marx to assert that it is the economic aspect (relation to the means of production) that determines the role of classes in public organization labor and the system of political power, affects their social position and way of life. The class struggle, in turn, is the driving force behind social development (changes in the social structure of society).

The classical definition of a social class was given by the successor of the Marxist theory V.I. Lenin. He singled out four main features of a class: classes are large groups of people who differ in their place in a historically defined system of social production, their attitude to the means of production, their role in the social organization of labor, the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they possess. The essence of relations between classes lies in the ability of some to appropriate the labor of others, which is possible due to the difference in their place in a certain way of social economy.

Within the framework of Marxist theory, any society exists as a system major and non-core classes. The existence of the former is determined by the dominant mode of production (the specifics of the economic basis), while the presence of the latter is determined by the processes of preservation (or gradual disappearance) of the remnants of old economic relations or the formation of a new (not yet dominant) mode of production. Social groups that are not part of the existing classes (they do not have clear class features) form specific (intermediate, transitional) social strata (layers). An example of such a layer is the intelligentsia - a significant group of people professionally comma mental labor, the production of knowledge, meanings, symbols.

An alternative to the Marxist logic of class analysis (of that period) was the theory of violence by G. Spencer and E. Dühring and the polystructural Weberian approach. The first alternative proceeded from the leading role of war and violence in the formation of social classes: as a result of war and the enslavement of some groups by others, a distinction arises in labor functions, wealth, and prestige. For example, G. Spencer believed that the winners create the ruling class, and the defeated become producers (slaves, serfs, etc.). The system of inequality includes three classes: the highest (domination, leadership), the middle (delivery, purchase and sale of products), the lowest (extraction and production of the product).

Unlike K. Marx, M. Weber did not want to see in the class only economic features that oversimplify both the nature of the class and the diversity of elements of the social structure of society. Along with the category "class", he used the categories "stratum" and "party", in relation to which he singled out three stratification projections of society (three orders): economic, social, political. Differences in property form classes, differences in prestige form strata (status groups), differences in power form political parties.

M. Weber represented a class as a group of people with similar chances in life, determined by their power (influence), which makes it possible to receive specific benefits and have an income. Being in a class is not fatal, irresistible (unlike the beliefs of K. Marx), since the market is the determining factor in the class situation, i.e. types of human opportunities to enjoy goods and earn income under certain conditions. Thus, a class is people who are in the same class situation, having general position in the field of economics, which can be changed depending on the situation. The transition from one class to another is not difficult, since the class-forming features are blurred and it is not always possible to draw clear boundaries between classes.

There are three classes: class of owners(property owners of various shapes and sizes), profit class(subjects related to banking, trade and services) and social class(proletariat, petty bourgeoisie, intelligentsia, officials, persons, commas in the education system). These three classes are essentially groups of classes, since each of them consists of several classes (subclasses), belonging to which is determined not by the relation to the means of production, but by arbitrary criteria (mainly the level of consumption and forms of ownership of property). For example, the class of owners looks like this: owners of slaves, owners of land, owners of mines, owners of equipment and appliances, owners of steamships, owners of jewelry and art treasures, financial creditors. The class (subclass) of propertyless owners (owners with a minus sign) includes slaves, declassed people, debtors, and the “poor”.

In modern sociology, the theory of classes has broken up into many directions and schools that are trying to comprehend the modern processes of transformation of the class structure of the traditional capitalist society, determined by the new quality of social realities (post-industrialism, information society, globalization). The main topics of class studies include the analysis of transformations in the system of ownership - management - control (M. Zeitlin, G. Karchedi, H. Bravsrman, P. Bourds), the study of the processes of change in the working class and the restructuring of classes (S. Malle, A. Gorz , P. Saunders, P. Townsend, A. Touraine), micro-level analysis of the class structure (E. Wright), exploitation theory (J. Roemer), research in the field of modern class struggle (M. Foucault, T. Marshall, R. Darsndorf ).

Strata (status group) - a set of people who have a certain amount of socially attributed prestige (honor) shared by all. The assessment (positive or negative) of this prestige is status. Status, honor, according to M. Weber, is not connected with the class situation of the subject and may even be in opposition to economic indicators. The fundamental difference between classes and strata is that the former arise in the process of development of production and commodity relations, and the strata are formed as the principles of consumption are established in all spheres of public life.

Strata(from lat. stratum- layer), or social stratum - a set of subjects with the same or similar statuses (a set of status features). Sometimes these concepts (stratum and layer) are distinguished: a stratum is a social group that has a certain status in the social hierarchy; social stratum - an intermediate (or transitional) social group that does not have all the characteristics of a class.

The concept of a stratum in modern form arose after the Marxist-Leninist theory of class as a more flexible and precise tool for the analysis of modern systems of stratification. A hierarchical set of strata forms a vertical section of the social system and reflects the inequality of its members. Historically, status groups in different societies were formed and consolidated in different forms: castes, estates, clans, etc.

As an ideal model for describing social inequality, a pyramid of three levels is most often proposed: upper - upper class (elite), middle - middle class (main class), lower - lower class (social bottom).

The stratification pyramid functions according to its universal laws, which allow us to give it some invariant characteristics: there are always fewer positions at the top than at the bottom; the amount of social goods circulating (consumed) at the top is always greater than at the bottom; promotion to the top positions is always associated with overcoming social filters (property qualification, educational, age, etc.) - the higher the position, the tougher the effect of these filters. Each of these levels may consist of a whole set of strata that reflect the real status diversity of social groups in a given society. For example, within the framework of the analysis of the structure of the middle class, it is possible (under appropriate conditions) to distinguish the upper layer of the middle class, the main class, the lower layer of the middle class, the boundary layer, etc. - it all depends on the source material of the study and the criteria for identifying strata. The latter concerns the main methodological question of the theory of stratification: on what basis does a scientist single out a stratum, distinguish them from each other? The answer was formed during the development of the concept of status.

social status, or rank, - the position of the subject in society, position in the social hierarchy. Status, status is formed on the basis of both objective signs (for example, industrial and professional) and subjective (for example, cultural and psychological assessments). With regard to status, a person is treated as a status set, i.e. carrier of many statuses at the same time (they are acquired and manifested in different situations). It is customary to distinguish between the following statuses:

• basic (key) and minor, which differ in the situation of manifestation;
• attributed, which does not depend on the individual (conditioned biologically (race, gender) or socially (class title, inheritance)), and achieved(depends on the personal merits of the subject);
• social(objective position in the social hierarchy) and private(position in a small group based on personal qualities).

The status is a consequence of the action of status (stratification) features. It is according to them that sociologists distribute people according to the "floors" of the social ladder, they are the basis for distinguishing social strata. These signs are concrete-historical, depending on the time and place of action, although in the theory of stratification there were attempts to find universal, invariant status signs. K. Marx, for example, singled out the main and only sign of social stratification - economic. It is based on the relationship to the means of production. The German sociologist R. Dahrendorf believed that a status sign is political authority, which reflects the complicity of power. Hence the division into managers (owners and non-owners) and managed (lower and higher). The French sociologist A. Touraine believed that in modern society(informational, post-industrial) main class attribute - access to the information because the forms of domination today are based on knowledge and education: the new ruling class (technocrats) is determined by the level of education and the availability of knowledge.

However, most researchers believe that there is no single universal stratification feature, that it is complex in nature and must correspond to the polystructural realities of the social system. P.A. Sorokin (the author of the classical theory of stratification) argued that in order to describe the social inequality of subjects, it is necessary to use a combination of economic, professional and political grounds. The American researcher L. Warner named income, prestige of the profession, education, ethnicity as stratification signs, on the basis of which in the US society of the 1930s-1940s. he identified six social strata. His colleague B. Barber defined the following features: prestige, profession, power, power, income, education, degree of religiosity (ritual purity); position of relatives, ethnicity.

When analyzing social inequality in modern societies, the following elements of stratification are most often evaluated:

• economic well-being(property, form and amount of income), according to which it is possible to distinguish the rich, wealthy, moderately well-off and poor;
• education, according to the level of which citizens can be divided into groups of persons with higher education, medium, etc.;
• profession(place in the system of division of labor, sphere of implementation of labor behavior, type, nature and qualification of labor). Depending on the nature of the activity, it is customary to distinguish between employees mental labor, workers employed in agriculture, industry, etc.;
• power(the amount of power, access to the distribution of scarce and significant resources), in relation to which one can single out ordinary workers, middle managers, top managers in business, top government executives, etc.;
• authority, prestige(the significance and influence of certain subjects in the view of others), according to which leaders, the elite, "stars", etc. can be distinguished.

When analyzing the social stratification of a given society, it is necessary to remember the specific historical context, which is reflected in the system of status (stratification) features, which can be rank (basic) and nominal (additional or concomitant). Ranked- these are the signs that "work" in a given situation, are real indicators of correlation with a particular stratum. Rated- those signs that “do not work” or show their effect in a latent form (for example, for the systems of stratification of modern democratic societies, gender, race, religion, nationality, place of residence will be nominal, but when transferred to the analysis of medieval society, they turn into rank ).

social role - status-related system of actions (functions, behaviors) subject. This concept was introduced by R. Linton in 1936. He defined the social role as the dynamic aspect of status.

The social role is formed as an objective and subjective expectation on the part of others of proper behavior from the bearer of this status. The concept and content of the role is formed in the individual in the process of socialization. Through the performance of roles, social interaction of individuals is carried out, a system of role ligaments is created.

According to T. Parsons, any social role is described by the following characteristics: emotional side (some roles require emotional restraint, others - looseness), a way to get a role (some roles are prescribed, others are won), scale (roles are strictly limited or blurred), degree of formalization roles (action according to strictly established rules or arbitrarily), motivation (orientation to personal benefit, the common good, the interests of the group), a structure that includes a description of the type of behavior, rules of conduct, evaluation of the role, a system of sanctions for breaking the rules.

When performing social roles, which fit the system of social relations and interactions of a given society, situations such as role conflict and distancing from the role may arise. Role conflict(relative to one subject) arises in a situation of mismatch of roles in the presence of several statuses at the same time (for example, the situation of Taras Bulba, when he killed his son Ondry: in the person of Bulba, the statuses of father and military opponent simultaneously converged). Role distancing is a deliberate violation of the strategy of prescribed role behavior. This situation falls under the definition of deviation. Mass distancing from a role can serve as a sign of social tension, a demand to change the existing rules of the status-role system.

social mobility - movement of the subject in social space or change by the subject of his place in the social structure. It is the most important characteristic of a stratified system, which makes it possible to describe its dynamics and changes. P.A. Sorokin argued that social mobility is present in any hierarchical society and it is necessary in the same way as blood vessels are for an animal organism.

Speaking of social mobility, it is necessary to distinguish between its varieties. So, in modern sociology there are:

• vertical(ascending and descending) and horizontal mobility. Vertical mobility is associated with a change in status to a higher (upward mobility) or lower (downward mobility), horizontal - with movements within the stratum without changing the status and rank signs. An example of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility, which is a simple movement from one place to another while maintaining the same social status (but if a change of status is added to the change of place, then geographic mobility becomes migration);
• individual mobility(moving up, down, horizontally of an individual independently of others) and group mobility(a situation of increasing or decreasing the social significance (value) of an entire group - a class, estate, caste). According to P.A. Sorokin, the causes of group mobility can be social revolutions, invasions and foreign interventions, wars, coups and change of political regimes, replacement of the old constitution with a new one, creation of an empire, peasant uprisings, internecine struggle of aristocratic families;
• intergenerational and intragenerational mobility. Intergenerational mobility suggests that the new generation reaches a higher or lower social level than the previous one, while intragenerational mobility describes a situation in which the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life (the phenomenon of a social career).

Moving in the social hierarchy is carried out with the help of "social lifts", which are legalized ways and means of changing the current social status. Some researchers identify six standard "elevators" (ways to increase status):

• 1) economic activity with which a poor, enterprising person can become a millionaire;
• 2) an area of ​​politics where one can make a political career with all the favorable consequences that follow from this;
• 3) service in the army, where an ordinary soldier can rise to the rank of general;
• 4) serving God as a way to achieve a high position in the church hierarchy;
• 5) scientific activity, which allows, although not immediately, thanks to great efforts to achieve a high position;
• 6) a successful marriage, with the help of which you can instantly improve your social status and financial situation.

The presence and nature of social mobility make it possible to characterize societies as closed and open. The first are social systems in which mobility is difficult, and some of its types are prohibited (caste and class societies). The latter approve and encourage social mobility, create conditions for the subject to move up the social ladder. However, it should be remembered that the division into closed and open societies is a rather ideological construction that appeared during the Cold War to describe the advantages of the West over the USSR and does not always stand up to criticism.

The concept of marginalism, which was introduced in the 1920s, is closely related to the concept of social mobility. 20th century American sociologist R. Park to designate the socio-psychological consequences of the inability of immigrants to adapt to a new environment.

Marginality(from lat. margo- on the edge) the state of a social subject (individual or group), which is characterized by borderlines with respect to socially significant structures, social groups or strata. Marginality as social phenomenon includes the following features:

The main factors of marginalization, researchers include poverty, closely related unemployment, urbanization processes (when the rural population is forced to change their way of life), high rates of modernization of traditional spheres of public and individual life.

Social stratification - an attributive sign of society - arises to a small extent already in primitive society (the stratification of the tribal community is not bright). Further development society brings to life various historical systems (types) of stratification, among which the following are most often distinguished:

• slavery, where the main historically relevant stratification feature was the subject's personal freedom/unfreedom;
• castes- the main features are religious purity and the origin of the individual (a classic example is Indian society);
• estates- the stratification sign here is the origin (feudal Europe, in which the estates initially, according to the law and (or) traditions, have unequal rights);
• classes- with this system of stratification, a number of stratification signs of economic, political, cultural content (income, education, power, profession, prestige) are distinguished, there are no formal social boundaries, equality of opportunity is legalized, the right of everyone to change their position is declared.

The first three historical systems of stratification are typical for closed societies, the last - for open ones.

The fact of social stratification, i.e. the existence of real social inequality among members of society has always given rise to the problem of its assessment and explanation. In modern social theory, four methodological approaches to the assessment of social inequality have been formed: functionalist, evolutionary, conflictological and symbolic.

Functionalists insist on the inevitability, naturalness and necessity of stratification (inequality), which is determined by the variety of needs of social subjects, the multiplicity of their roles and functions. Stratification, in their opinion, ensures the optimal functioning of society, and through the system of mobility ensures a fair distribution of benefits and resources.

Evolutionists note the dual nature of stratification - it cannot be unambiguously assessed as a positive and necessary phenomenon: the system of inequality is not always associated with justice, is not always useful and necessary, since it arises not only due to the natural needs of society, but also as a result of provoked conflicts over about the distribution of scarce resources; the existing system of stratification is capable of not only ensuring the development of society, but also hindering it.

Representatives of conflictological logic see the source of the formation of a system of inequality in intergroup conflicts and do not consider it fair (it serves the interests of the elite).

Symbolists do not focus on its "functionality - dysfunctionality" or "fairness - injustice", but on its content. From their point of view, the system of inequality evolves from overt, physical justification for the better position of the elite to forms of covert, symbolic elite violence and the distribution of social benefits; modern system social inequality is a system of symbolic distinction between the top and bottom of the social pyramid.

As for the social stratification of modern society, all sociologists talk about its complexity and the ambiguity of the criteria for distinguishing strata and classes, but the dominant point of view remains that is associated with exploitation. economic indicators subject (income, type of labor, profession, consumption structure, etc.). For example, Russian researchers I.I. Sanzharevsky, V.A. Titarenko and others, according to their place in the system of social production, distinguish production (material production), commercial (exchange), state-distribution (distribution and redistribution) and service (ensuring the normal functioning of production, exchange and distribution) classes, declassed elements.

On the example of Great Britain, E. Giddens proposes to single out (according to the level of economic well-being) the upper class, the middle class: the old middle class (small businesses and farmers), the upper middle class (managers and specialists high level) and the lower middle class (small clerks, salespeople, teachers, nurses); working class: the upper working class (skilled workers - the "labor aristocracy") and the lower working class (low-skilled workers); lower class.

In modern Belarus, there are five levels of stratification (depending on income and consumption patterns): 1) the bottom layer (employees without a specialty, low-skilled workers, pensioners, disabled people, housewives, unemployed);

2) the base layer (specialists of mass professions, pensioners, workers of medium qualification); 3) the middle layer (highly qualified specialists, workers highly qualified, medium-sized entrepreneurs); 4) the top layer (specialists in demand, successful entrepreneurs, the most skilled workers); 5) elite (highly paid employees, entrepreneurs). In the Republic of Belarus, the middle class makes up about 30%, the basic and lower class - about 70%.

• Sociological Encyclopedia / ed. rsd. A.N. Danilova. Minsk, 2003.S. 349-352.
• Sociological Encyclopedia / ed. ed. A.N. Danilova. pp. 351-352.
• There. S. 348.

Stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society, in a certain historical period of time. Moreover, social inequality is reproduced in fairly stable forms as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society. The existence of social differentiation can be taken as an axiom. However, the explanation of its nature, the foundations of historical evolution, the relationship of specific forms remains one of the key problems of sociology. And in order to understand this, it is necessary to know the intellectual tradition: the theories in which this problem was consecrated.

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The concept of social stratification

Stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society, in a certain historical period of time. Moreover, social inequality is reproduced in fairly stable forms as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society. The existence of social differentiation can be taken as an axiom. However, the explanation of its nature, the foundations of historical evolution, the relationship of specific forms remains one of the key problems of sociology. And in order to understand this, it is necessary to know the intellectual tradition: the theories in which this problem was consecrated.

social stratification- this is a description of social inequality in society, its division into social strata according to income, the presence or absence of privileges, and lifestyle.

In the case of primitive society, this inequality was not so significant, and because of this, the phenomenon of stratification was almost absent. As society has developed, inequality has only grown and grown. In complex societies, it divided people by level of education, income, power. Castes arose, then estates, and not so long ago classes. Some societies prohibit the transition from one class to another, some restrict it, and there are those where it is completely allowed. It is the freedom of social movement that helps determine whether a society is open or closed.

Term "stratification" and originally a geological term. There it serves to indicate the location of the layers of the Earth along a vertical line. Sociology inherited this scheme and made the structure of society, like the structure of the Earth, placing the social strata of society also vertically. The basis for this scheme of structure is the so-called income ladder, where the poor have the lowest rung, the middle class of the population - the middle, and the rich stratum - the top.

Inequality or stratification arose gradually, accompanying the birth of human society. Its initial form was already present in the primitive mode. The tightening of stratification occurred during the creation of early states due to the creation of a new class - slaves.
Slavery is the first historical system stratification. It arose in ancient times in China, Egypt, Babylon, Rome, Greece and existed in many countries up to the present. Slavery is a social, economic and legal form of enslavement of people. Slavery often deprived a person of any rights at all and bordered on an extreme degree of inequality.

Mitigation stratification occurred with the gradual liberalization of views. For example, during this period, in countries with the Hindu religion, a new division of society is created - into castes. Castes are social groups, a member of which a person became only because he was born from representatives of one or another stratum (caste). Such a person was deprived for the rest of his life of the right to move to another caste, from the one in which he was born. There are 4 main castes: shurds - peasants, vaishyas - merchants, kshatriyas - warriors and brahmins - priests. In addition to them, there are still about 5 thousand castes and a podcast.

All the most prestigious professions and privileged positions are held by the wealthy segment of the population. Usually their work is connected with mental activity and management of the lower parts of society. Their examples are presidents, kings, leaders, kings, political leaders, scientists, politicians, artists. They are the highest rung in society.

In modern society, the middle class can be considered lawyers, qualified employees, teachers, doctors, as well as the middle and petty bourgeoisie. The lowest layer can be considered the poor, unemployed and unskilled workers. Between the middle and the lower one can still distinguish one class in the composition, which often includes representatives of the working class.

Rich people, as members of the upper class, tend to have the highest levels of education and have the most access to power. The poor miles of the population are often quite limited by the level of power, up to the complete lack of the right to govern. They also have a low level of education and low income.

Society stratification occurs with the application of several factors: income, wealth, power and prestige. Income can be described as the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received in a certain period of time. Such money includes: wages, alimony, pensions, fees, etc.
Wealth- this is the possibility of having property (movable and immovable), or the presence of accumulated income in the form of cash. This is main feature all the rich. They can either work or not work in order to get their wealth, because the share of wages in their general condition is not large. For the lower and middle classes, it is income that is the main source for further existence. The presence of wealth makes it possible not to work, and its absence forces people to go to work for the sake of a salary.
Power exercise the ability to impose their wishes, not taking into account the will of others. In modern society, all power is subject to regulation by laws and traditions. People who have access to it can freely use a wide range of various social benefits, have the right to make decisions that, in their opinion, are important for society, including laws (which are often beneficial to the upper class).
Prestige- this is the degree of respect in society for a particular profession. On the basis of these bases for the division of society, the aggregate socio-economic status is determined. In another way, it can be called the place of a certain person in society.

So: social stratification, perhaps one of the main topics of sociology, which makes it possible to understand the methods and ways of dividing society into classes, determine their main characteristics and conduct a complete analysis of such a section.

Systems of social stratification

The basis of social stratification serves social differentiation- the division of society into certain constituent parts, which in the course of history have undergone evolution. The basis of differentiation is the division of labor - the emergence of a variety of professions, positions, statuses. People have understood long before the present time that the division of labor is very effective - it saves time and does not affect the final result of any work.

open and closed stratification systems. Stratification subdivided into the following systems:
- open (those in which the transition from one group to another is possible)
- closed (transition from one status to another is a very complex and almost impossible process).
social stratification It is customary to subdivide into four systems: castes, clans, slavery, classes. To understand this classification, it is necessary to study all systems separately.

Slavery.
The enslavement of some people by others from an economic, social, and legal point of view is called slavery. This concept is associated with huge inequalities and lack of rights. It is customary to single out three reasons for the emergence of slaveholding relations:
1. Debt obligation (a person is not able to pay off existing debts, and therefore falls into the power of the borrower);
2. Non-compliance with laws (the absence of the death penalty provided for the establishment of slave-owning relations between the victims and the criminal after conviction);
3. War (use of prisoners as slaves).

Slavery existed in ancient Rome, Africa, Greece. Basically, slaves were used on plantations, various sowing works and any physical labor. At this time, their owners were engaged only in their spiritual needs.
A lot of people were slaves without any personal rights. The “prisoners” differed only in the conditions of their “imprisonment” - some had to serve a certain time, others had the opportunity to buy their freedom by working for other people, the former prisoners were basically slaves all their lives. In most cases, there was a transfer of such status to future generations. However, in Mexico there has never been such a transfer of such a plan by inheritance.
Despite the conditions of detention and duration, one thing can be said - slavery under any circumstances is a divider of society into two classes - privileged and free, and slaves. Of course, it cannot be said that throughout history the characteristics of slaveholding relations did not change, the evolution was reflected literally in everything.

There are two forms of slavery:
1. Patriarchal - the slave had the right to participate in the life of the owners, start a family, regardless of the status of the chosen person. The death penalty was forbidden;
2. Classical - a slave was considered the absolute property of his master, had no rights.

It can be said that this form of interpersonal relations is the only one of its kind in all of history; there has never been such a distinction between layers anywhere else and never.

Castes.
Caste - a social group, to which it is possible to get into only thanks to one's birth, that is, it all depends on the status of the parents.

It is worth noting that even with worthy achievements in life, a person with a low status will forever belong to him, and only to him.

Society with such form of stratification set the goal of maintaining a clear line between the layers. In this regard, marriages are typical for him only between people of equal status, even just communicating with the lower castes was considered disrespectful in the highest degree.

The clearest example of such a society can be called Indian, in which the criterion for classification was religious affiliation - four castes that existed for three thousand years.

Clans.
Clan is a group of people united by family, social and economic ties.

Such form of stratification characteristic of agrarian societies. A clan is a large number of people connected by various degrees of kinship. However, each member of the clan has the same status as all the rest of its members, and all his life must be faithful only to his clan. In such a society, there is the possibility of marriage between people of different clans - such unions can have a beneficial effect on two clans at once - after all, there is an imposition of obligations on a spouse. In the process of evolution, clans are replaced by social classes.

Classes.
Class - a large number of people with the same social status and a specific method of making a profit.

Compared to the above forms of stratification, the class division of society is very loyal and open. The basic foundation of this type of division is material well-being and the availability of property. A person from birth belongs to a certain class, but during his life the class may change depending on certain behavior in society, achievements. Membership in any social class is not a necessary criterion in determining the type of activity, choosing a profession, or entering into marriage.

We can say that this system of stratification is flexible, because a lot depends only on the potential, the desire of people. Yes, of course, it is almost impossible to move from a higher class to a lower one or vice versa, but it is quite possible to regulate less abrupt transitions.

Karl Marx's theory of social stratification

The most famous scientist and figure who laid the foundation for the development of the theory of stratification is K. Marx. It was he who, among the first sociologists, formulated in an expanded form the structure of society as an integral system and social formation. Although more appropriate for sociology is the term "Formation", which before Karl Marx was used only in relation to such a well-known science as geology. The very definition of "formation" means a complex of geological rocks connected in horizontal and vertical terms, where the horizontal is for age coordinates, and the vertical is for spatial ones. Upon thorough examination, it becomes clear why this particular term entered sociology, because the social formation is applicable to society, clearly defines the structures of both vertical and horizontal societies, with the addition of both in geology, the residual layers of which in society can be called previous eras, age and others. similar settings. Karl Marx gave the following definition: "a formation is a social system that has an internal interconnection and is in an unstable balance." Therefore, before considering the stratification of society, it is necessary to understand the structure of the entire society as a whole, bearing in mind that the primacy in society has an economic component, since "being determines consciousness." The two main parts of society should be considered the basis and additional, as well as the main superstructures, since the basis of any known society is the economic system. In turn, the basis for it is the principle of material goods, which is made up of production and relations in it, expressed in various forms of ownership of the means of production, which gives rise to class inequality with all sorts of ensuing consequences. It's like two sides of the same coin being two parts of one whole, each of which determines what value this whole will have. Next, we will analyze the mode of production that determines the formations, creating a separate branch with various types of educational institutions included in it and complementary religions, arts and the main morality that reigns in the formation. In addition to the basis and superstructure according to the theory of Karl Marx, the formation includes social classes of certain types, groups of individuals, societies with different lifestyles and forms of marriage, in turn, all related to the same mode of production, which is inextricably linked and directly dependent on the productive force. The productive forces consist, by definition, of subjective and material relations of production that together form a system. According to the theory of Karl Marx, relations of production are relations that develop in production, which the theorist considered in a broad aspect, including distribution and consumption. Relations of production, regardless of the form of ownership, significantly affect the means of production. They are class-forming and at the same time the main factors in the appearance of inequality. Both of these components are closely related. it should be noted that Karl Marx was a supporter of one-dimensional stratification, without giving a clear definition of classes, but only voicing assumptions about their occurrence. Here are some of them: - society, producing surpluses of resources without controlling their spending, gives ground at the moment when any of the groups begin to consider these surpluses as property; - the definition of the class occurs on the basis of its possession in quantitative terms of the produced product. In general, after studying the theory of Karl Marx, on the basis of his various statements, one can derive a definition of the concept of class - these are social groups that are unequal and compete for primacy, mainly for dominance over property. Karl Marx considered the main ground for the emergence of classes to be the division of labor, which ideally does not lead to inequality, but only forms specialization, professions and specialties, but in the course of development and the need to manage more and more resources leads to the emergence of professional-level managers, which entails the formation of socially heterogeneous species, outlining the technical aspects of production and the socio-economic component. The socio-economic part includes such sections as: mental, physical, managerial, performing, creative and stereotypical, each of which can be both qualified and unskilled. It is these factors that are forming for the emergence of private property and the subsequent definition and assignment to various classes of various specific types of action. Only after that, for the class, the type of activity ceases to be defining. On the contrary, for certain classes a circle of professions is determined, even within one class. Summing up the study of Karl Marx's theory of social stratification. adapting the general concepts of his theory for improved perception, one can generally say the following: individuals invariably belong to social classes that are defined and divided according to the signs of their possession of the means of production and the profit they receive. Separation implies inequality from the assignment of one of the classes to any part

Human society is uneven: it has various groups, layers, or in other words - strata. This division of people is called the social stratification of society. Let's try to briefly study this concept.

Definition

In essence, social stratification has a similar meaning to the social stratification of society. Both of these concepts denote differentiation, the division of people into different groups. For example, rich and poor.

The stratification carries the significance of the formation of layers, groups in society. The only difference is that the concept of stratification is fixed in science, and the term "social stratification" is more used in everyday speech.

Origin of the term

The word "stratification" was originally used by geologists. It represents the layers various breeds: fertile layer, clay, sand and so on. Then this concept was transferred to sociological science. This is how the concept of horizontal social stratification appeared, and now we represent human society, like the structure of the Earth, in the form of layers.

The division into strata occurs according to the following criteria: income, power, prestige, level of education. That is, society is divided into groups on the following grounds: by income level, by the ability to manage other people, by education level and by prestige.

• Classes

Large, including many representatives of the strata are called classes, which are subdivided into layers. For example, the class of the rich is divided into upper and lower (Depending on income - very large and smaller).

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• Income

Income is the amount of money that a person receives in a given period of time. As a rule, money is spent on meeting the needs of a person, his family. In the event that income grows and money does not have time to be spent, accumulation occurs, which as a result leads to wealth.

• Education

This criterion is measured by the number of years a person has spent studying. For example, if for a scientist it is 20 years, then for a worker it is only 9.

• Power

Receiving powers of authority, a person discovers for himself the opportunity to impose his will, decisions. Moreover, power can be extended to a different number of people. Let us give examples that are typical for modern Russian society. Presidential Decrees Russian Federation obligatory for all residents of our country, and the director's orders private firm"Computer-Doctor" - only for his subordinates.

• Prestige

This concept implies respect for the status of a person, his position. For example, in Russian society, a banker, a lawyer, a doctor are considered prestigious professions, but a janitor, a driver, and a plumber are not respected.

The history of the emergence of social stratification

The theory of social stratification has come a long way in its development, since this phenomenon has a fairly long history:

• In primitive society, there was practically no stratification, since inequality had not yet acquired pronounced forms;
• With the complication of society, castes, estates, and then classes began to arise;
• In Europe, in the 17th-19th centuries, classes replaced the feudal-estate society. For a long time there was a class hierarchy: the clergy, the nobility, the peasantry. But society does not stand still. Industry developed, new professions appeared, representatives of which no longer fit into the former estates. Workers, entrepreneurs were not satisfied with this situation, which led to uprisings and even revolutions (for example, in England and France). As a result of these events, classes appeared.

In the post-industrial and contemporary period, the concept of social stratification has not lost its significance, as the structure of society continues to become more complex.

Ways to solve the problem

Features of social stratification in modern Russia, the severity of this problem causes disputes about the origin and ways to solve it :

• Someone believes that social inequality is inevitable, it exists in any society: there are especially important functions that are performed by the most talented people. They are provided with rare valuable benefits;
• Others believe that stratification in society is unfair, as some people appropriate more goods for themselves at the expense of others. Which means it must be destroyed.

Feature of social stratification

One of the signs and features of social stratification is that a person can change his roles, move around. This phenomenon is called social mobility. She has two varieties :

• Horizontal : position change in the same stratum (For example, director oil company became a director of a large bank)
• vertical : moving up the social ladder, both up and down (For example, a history teacher became a school principal - ascent, or a teacher lost his job and became unemployed - a decrease in status

What have we learned?

The social stratification of a society is its division into separate groups. It has special criteria such as power, income and prestige. The differentiation of society appeared long ago and continues to exist in the modern world. One of its features is social mobility, that is, the movement of people from one stratum to another.

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Social stratification(from lat. stratum- layer and facio- do) - one of the basic concepts sociology denoting a system of signs and criteria of social stratification, position in society; social structure society; branch of sociology.

Under social stratification refers to the presence in a given society of many social formations, whose representatives differ among themselves in an unequal amount of power and material wealth, rights and obligations, privileges and prestige. Such a hierarchically built distribution of socio-cultural benefits expresses the essence of social stratification, through which in any social system it becomes possible to stimulate certain types of activity and interaction, tolerate others and suppress others. Thus social stratification differs from social differentiation. The concept of “social differentiation” is broader in scope and implies any social differences, including those not related to inequality, with stimulation (or, conversely, repression) of various forms of activity.

The term "stratification" is borrowed by sociology from geology, where it refers to the location of the layers of the earth.

social stratification- this is the division of society into special layers (strata) by combining various social positions with approximately the same social status, reflecting the prevailing idea of ​​​​social inequality in it, built vertically (social hierarchy), along its axis according to one or more stratification criteria (indicators of social status).

The division of society into strata is carried out on the basis of the inequality of social distances between them - the main property of stratification. Social strata line up vertically and in strict sequence according to indicators of wealth, power, education, leisure, and consumption.

In social stratification, a certain social distance is established between people (social positions) and a hierarchy of social strata is formed. Thus, unequal access of members of society to certain socially significant scarce resources is fixed by establishing social filters on the borders separating social strata.

For example, the allocation of social strata can be carried out according to the levels of income, knowledge, power, consumption, the nature of work, and spending free time. The social strata identified in society are evaluated in it according to the criterion of social prestige, which expresses the social attractiveness of certain positions.

The simplest stratification model is the dichotomous one - the division of society into elites and masses. In the earliest archaic social systems, the structuring of society into clans is carried out simultaneously with the establishment of social inequality between them and within them. This is how “initiates” appear, that is, those who are initiated into certain social practices (priests, elders, leaders) and the uninitiated - profane. Within such a society, if necessary, it can further stratify as it develops. This is how castes, estates, classes, etc. appear.

Most researchers believe that social stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society in a certain historical period of time. The hierarchically organized structure of social inequality can be imagined as the division of the whole society into strata (this word comes from the Latin stratum - layer, flooring). Layered, multi-level society in this case can be compared with the geological layers of the soil. At the same time, compared with simple stratification, social stratification has at least two significant differences. First, stratification is a stratification of ranks, when the upper strata are in a more privileged position (in terms of the possession of resources or opportunities for obtaining rewards) than the lower strata. Secondly, the upper strata are much smaller in terms of the number of their members of society. Thus, the elite, the upper strata, are certainly a minority in comparison with the lower strata of society. The same can be said about the other layers, if they are viewed sequentially from top to bottom. However, in modern, highly developed, prosperous societies, this order is violated. The poor strata may be inferior in quantitative terms to the stratum constituting the so-called "middle class" and to some other strata of the population.

Modern ideas about the stratification model that has developed in society are quite complex - multi-layered (polychotomous), multidimensional (carried out along several axes) and variable (allow the coexistence of many stratification models): qualifications, quotas, attestation, status determination, ranks, benefits, privileges, etc. preferences.

At present, the theory of stratification by K. Davis and W. Moore can be considered the most influential point of view on the process of formation of social strata. According to this theory, every society must solve the problem of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure. The social order in society is based on the distribution of individuals according to social status (according to their functionality, i.e. their maximum contribution to achieving the goals of society) and encourage them to fulfill social roles corresponding to these statuses. Society can choose two ways of motivation for the best performance of social roles. So, the competitive system is primarily aimed at mobilizing individuals in relation to achieving the most attractive status, while the non-competitive system in relation to social status pays more attention to the motivation to perform functional duties, i.e. contribution to society as a whole. A society with any social structure uses both of these systems, only to a different extent.

The most important dynamic characteristic of society is social mobility. According to the definition of P. A. Sorokin, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.” However, social agents do not always move from one position to another, it is possible to move the social positions themselves in the social hierarchy, such a movement is called “positional mobility” (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility). Along with social filters that set up barriers to social movement, there are also “social lifts” in society that significantly accelerate this process (in a crisis society - revolutions, wars, conquests, etc.; in a normal, stable society - family, marriage, education , property, etc.). The degree of freedom of social movement from one social stratum to another largely determines whether a society is closed or open.

The point of view of K. Sorokin is successfully developed by his student, one of the prominent teachers of the Harvard School in sociology, a representative of functionalism T. Parsons, who believes that value orientations of members of society are the basis of stratification. At the same time, the assessment and attribution of people to certain social strata is carried out according to the following main criteria:

• - qualitative characteristics of members of society, which are determined by genetic traits and prescribed statuses (origin, family ties, personal qualities and abilities);
• - role characteristics, which are determined by the set of roles that an individual performs in society (position, level of professionalism, level of knowledge, etc.);
• - the characteristics of the possession of material and spiritual prices by posts (money, means of production, works of art, the possibilities of spiritual and ideological influence on other strata of society, etc.).

Attempts to explain the mechanism of stratification of society were made more than once in different periods of human history. However, only in the last decades of our century, we were able to teach to comprehend this most important social problem, without understanding which it is impossible to explain the processes taking place in society, to imagine the future of this society.

Typology of strata

A stratum includes many people with some common status attribute of their position, who feel connected to each other by this community. As a common feature that allows you to unite people into strata, there can be features of various nature - production, economic, political, socio-demographic, cultural, etc. Thus, the researcher gets the opportunity to analyze the population according to a variety of - important, secondary and even insignificant - criteria. As a result, people belonging to different classes may end up in the same stratum, singled out, for example, on the basis of education or job descriptions. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the basis for distinguishing a stratum is not any sign, but only a status one, that is, one that objectively acquires a rank character in a given society “higher-lower”, “better-worse”, “prestigious “not prestigious”, etc. A number of characteristics can be used as the basis for distinguishing only differentiated, but not status groups. For example, fans of folk music or fans of a football team are most often seen as members of a particular cultural group, regardless of its status aspect.

What only typologies of classes were invented by scientists and thinkers. The ancient philosophers Plato and Aristotle were the first to propose their model.

Today, sociologists offer different typologies of classes. One has seven, the other has six, the third has five, and so on. social strata.

The first typology of US classes was proposed in the 1940s by the American sociologist Lloyd Warner. It included six classes. In addition to this, other schemes were proposed, for example: upper-higher, upper-lower, upper-middle, middle-middle, lower-middle, working, lower classes. Or: upper class, upper-middle, middle and lower-middle class, upper working class and lower working class, underclass. There are many options, but it is important to understand two fundamental points:

• . the main classes, no matter how they are called, are only three: rich, prosperous and poor;
• . non-basic classes arise by adding strata or layers that lie within one of the main classes.

Speaking about the elements of social stratification, they use such units of analysis as "class", "social stratum", "social group" denoting different social communities. The inclusion of people in a particular community is determined primarily by the form of their social interaction, which allows them to be considered as a single whole, as well as the place or social positions they occupy in the social space.

Social class is a large taxonomic unit of social division. This concept was born long before the advent of stratification theory. It has firmly entered the scientific apparatus of social thinkers in Western Europe in modern times. Prior to this, the units of the social structure were discussed based on class representations, using the names of specific social or public ipynn, representatives of certain professions, etc. and the poor.

We list the typological groupings of the most important features, some of their empirical referents, as well as the layers that are distinguished on the basis of these features and indicators:

• . signs associated with the economic situation of people, i.e., the presence of private property, types and amounts of income, the level of material well-being; strata are distinguished accordingly: rich, middle-income and poor; high and low paid workers; property owners and residents of municipal apartments, etc.;
• . signs associated with the division of labor, i.e., the scope of application, types and nature of labor, the hierarchy of professional statuses, the level of qualifications and professional skills, professional training; strata are distinguished accordingly: workers in heavy industry; service workers; persons with secondary special education, etc.;
• . signs associated with the scope of power: here production relations and the organization of labor are of great importance, within which varying degrees and unequal volumes of opportunities are formed to influence others through official position, through types and forms management activities, through the possession of socially significant information, etc.; accordingly, we can distinguish layers: ordinary workers at a state enterprise; small business managers; top government executives; elective positions of the municipal level of government, etc.;
• . signs associated with social prestige, authority, influence.

Class concept

Despite the fact that social class is one of the central concepts in sociology, scientists still do not have a single point of view regarding the content of this concept. For the first time we find a detailed picture of class society in the works of K. Marx. It can be said that Marx's social classes are economically determined and genetically conflicting groups. The basis of division into groups is the presence or absence of property. The feudal lord and the serf in a feudal society, the bourgeois and the proletarian in a capitalist society, are antagonistic classes that inevitably appear in any society that has a complex hierarchical structure based on inequality. Marx also allowed the existence of small social groups in society that could influence class conflicts. In studying the nature of social classes, Marx made the following assumptions:

1. Every society produces a surplus of food, shelter, clothing, and other resources. Class differences arise when one of the population groups appropriates resources that are not immediately consumed and are not currently needed. Such resources are treated as private property.
2. Classes are determined on the basis of the fact of ownership or non-ownership of the produced property. In different historical periods, there were different types of property (slaves, water, land, capital), which were crucial in human relationships, but all social systems were based on two antagonistic social classes. In the modern era, according to Marx, there are two main antagonistic class - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

3. The importance of the study of classes lies in the fact that class relations necessarily presuppose the exploitation of one class by another; one class appropriates the results of the labor of another class, exploits and suppresses it. This kind of relationship constantly reproduces the class conflict, which is the basis of social changes taking place in society.

1. There is an object (for example, the possession of resources) and subjective attributes of a class. The latter represent the fact of belonging to a class, which does not necessarily have to be accompanied by an awareness of such belonging or a sense of political affinity with the interests of one's class. Only when the members of society are aware of their class affiliation, when they begin to act together in the interests of their class, can we speak of a fully formed social class.

Despite the revision, from the point of view of modern society, of many provisions of the class theory of K. Marx, some of his ideas remain relevant in the current social structures.

The most influential, alternative to the Marxist theory of social classes are works by M. Weber. Unlike Marx, Weber identifies other factors that influence the formation of inequality relations. In particular, he considers prestige as one of the most important signs of social class. However, he considers links between opportunities for advancement to higher, attractive statuses and belonging to a social class, believing that a class is a group of people with similar advancement or career opportunities. Just like Marx, Weber sees the relation to property as the basic status distribution in society and the basis for the formation of social classes. However, Weber attaches much more importance to the division within the main classes (the presence of intermediate classes) than Marx. For example, Weber divides the class of owners and the trading class, divides the working class into several classes (depending on the type of ownership of the enterprises in which they work) based on the opportunities they have to improve their status. Unlike Marx, Weber considers the bureaucracy as a class, as a necessary link of power in modern society. Weber for the first time lays a system of stratification in the basis of class division; existing in this society.

Modern theories of social classes are also based on the theory of stratification. Most sociologists see a basic difference in relation to property; nevertheless, they recognize class-forming factors such as official status, power, prestige, etc. If, social stratum can denote a division along one parameter, then the social class is not only an enlarged stratum.

1. Firstly, a social class is formed on the basis of the proximity of status profiles, i.e., it is based on a number of class-forming parameters, and the possession (ability to dispose) of resources is the basis of the class division of society.
2. Secondly, each social class has a specific subculture, which is maintained in the form of traditions, taking into account the existing social distances between representatives of different classes, as well as class consciousness, which becomes universal within this class in terms of self-identification and collective achievement of class interests.
3. Thirdly, each class has different social opportunities and privileges, which is a decisive condition for achieving the most prestigious and rewarded statuses.

Models of the class structure of society

At present, there are a large number of models of class structures, and sociologists are now coming to the conclusion that in modern society the basis of these structures remains unchanged, and only individual structural units change depending on the cultural, economic, structural and other characteristics of each society. At the same time, the definition of the class positions of individuals is carried out using complex indices that evaluate the positions of an individual in many dimensions (in our case, this is a status profile).

Among the models of stratification adopted in Western sociology, the most famous should be considered the model of W. Watson, which was the result of research conducted in the 30s in the United States. It should be said that all modern Western models of the class structure of society, to one degree or another, contain elements of the Watson model.

When conducting research, Watson and his colleagues initially focused on a fairly simple three-tier system of class division of society - the upper class, the middle class, the lower class. However, the results of the study showed that it is advisable to single out intermediate classes within each of these enlarged classes. As a result, Watson's model acquired the following final form:

1. Top-top class are representatives of influential and wealthy dynasties with very significant resources of power, wealth and prestige throughout the state. Their position is so strong that it practically does not depend on competition, depreciation of securities and other socio-economic changes in society. Very often members of this class do not even know the exact size of their empires.
2. Lower-upper class bankers are prominent poly owners of large firms who have reached the highest status in the course of competition or due to various qualities. They cannot be accepted into the upper-upper class, because they are either considered upstarts (from the point of view of representatives of the upper-upper class), or they do not have sufficient influence in all areas of the activity of this society. Typically, representatives of this class are fiercely competitive and depend on the political and economic situation in society.

H. Upper-middle class includes successful businessmen, hired company managers, prominent lawyers, doctors, outstanding athletes, scientific elite. Representatives of this class do not claim influence on the scale of the state, however, in rather narrow areas of activity, their position is quite strong and stable. They enjoy high prestige in their fields of activity. Representatives of this class are usually spoken of as the wealth of the nation.

1. lower-middle class hired workers - engineers, medium and small rank teachers, scientists, heads of departments at enterprises, highly skilled workers, etc. This class is currently in developed Western countries the most numerous. His main aspirations are raising the status within this class, success and a career. In this regard, for representatives of this class, a very important point is economic, social and political stability in society. Speaking for stability, representatives of this class are the main support for the existing government.
2. upper-lower class are mainly hired workers who create surplus value in a given society. Dependent in many ways on the upper classes for their livelihood, this class struggled throughout its existence to improve living conditions. In those moments when its representatives realized their interests and rallied to achieve their goals, their living conditions improved.
3. lower-lower class are the poor, the unemployed, the unemployed, foreign workers and other representatives of marginalized groups.

The experience of using the Watson model showed that in the presented form it is in most cases unacceptable for the countries of Eastern Europe and Russia, where a different social structure developed in the course of historical processes, there were fundamentally different status groups. However, at present, due to the changes that have taken place in our society, many elements of Watson's structure can be used in the course of studying the composition of the social classes in Russia. For example, the social structure of our society in the studies of N.M. Rimashevskaya looks like this:

1. "All-Russian elite groups", combining the possession of property in amounts comparable to the largest Western states, and the means of power influence at the all-Russian level.
2. “Regional and corporate elites”, which have significant wealth and influence at the level of regions and sectors of the economy, in terms of Russian scale.
3. The Russian "upper middle class", which has property and incomes that provide Western standards of consumption, claims to improve its social status and is guided by the established practice and ethical norms of economic relations.
4. The Russian “dynamic middle class”, which has incomes that ensure the satisfaction of average Russian and higher consumption standards, relatively high potential adaptability, significant social claims and motivations, social activity and an orientation towards legal ways of its manifestation.
5. "Outsiders", characterized by low adaptation and social activity, low incomes and orientation towards legal ways of obtaining them.
6. "Marginals", characterized by low adaptation and asocial and antisocial attitudes in their socio-economic activities.
7. "Criminal society", which has a high social activity and adaptation, but at the same time quite rationally acting contrary to the legal norms of economic activity.

As you can see, the Rimashevskaya model is similar in many respects to the Watson model. First of all, this is noted in relation to the significance of the “dynamic middle class”, which is in the process of formation, which largely affects the existence of significant social instability in modern Russia. Rimashevskaya emphasizes this point in the development of Russian society: “If it is possible to maintain this type of social dynamics, to orient it towards the gradual transfer of social expectations to the corresponding status positions, the level of income, then this will mean that the “dynamic middle class” will begin to transform into a classical support of stability and social order."

In conclusion, we can say that the social class structure is built on the basis of inequality, taking into account such a characteristic as heterogeneity. The system of inequality is formed on the basis of the basic parameters of society, which include income, origin, position, power, education and other ranking indicators. The proximity of social statuses leads to the formation of social strata, which, in addition to the difference in remuneration, have different attitudes, norms of behavior, ideals, etc.

Social strata can be combined into social classes that have a certain relationship to the means of production, their own subculture and opportunities to occupy more attractive social statuses. The class structure of society has unique specific features and is subject to change in the course of social development.

(from Lat. stratum - layer + facere - to do) is called the differentiation of people in society depending on access to power, profession, income and some other socially significant features. The concept of "stratification" was proposed by a sociologist (1889-1968), who borrowed it from the natural sciences, where it, in particular, denotes the distribution of geological layers.

Rice. 1. The main types of social stratification (differentiation)

The distribution of social groups and people by strata (layers) makes it possible to identify relatively stable elements of the structure of society (Fig. 1) in terms of access to power (politics), professional functions performed and income received (economy). Three main types of stratification are presented in history - castes, estates and classes (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Main historical types of social stratification

castes(from Portuguese casta - clan, generation, origin) - closed social groups connected by a common origin and legal status. Caste membership is determined solely by birth, and marriages between members of different castes are forbidden. The most famous is the caste system of India (Table 1), originally based on the division of the population into four varnas (in Sanskrit this word means “kind, genus, color”). According to legend, varnas were formed from different parts of the body of the primordial man, who was sacrificed.

Table 1. Caste system in ancient India

	Representatives		Associated body part
Brahmins	Scholars and priests
	Warriors and rulers
	Peasants and merchants
	"Untouchable", dependent persons

Estates - social groups whose rights and obligations, enshrined in law and tradition, are inherited. Below are the main estates characteristic of Europe in the 18th-19th centuries:

• the nobility is a privileged class from among the large landowners and officials who have served themselves. An indicator of nobility is usually a title: prince, duke, count, marquis, viscount, baron, etc.;
• clergy - ministers of worship and the church, with the exception of priests. In Orthodoxy, black clergy (monastic) and white (non-monastic) are distinguished;
• merchant class - the trading class, which included the owners of private enterprises;
• peasantry - the class of farmers engaged in agricultural labor as the main profession;
• philistinism - the urban class, consisting of artisans, small merchants and lower employees.

In some countries, a military estate was distinguished (for example, chivalry). In the Russian Empire, the Cossacks were sometimes referred to as a special estate. Unlike the caste system, marriages between members of different classes are permissible. It is possible (although difficult) to move from one class to another (for example, the purchase of the nobility by a merchant).

Classes(from lat. classis - category) - large groups of people, differing in their attitude to property. The German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883), who proposed a historical classification of classes, pointed out that an important criterion for distinguishing classes is the position of their members - oppressed or oppressed:

• in a slave-owning society, such were slaves and slave-owners;
• in feudal society, feudal lords and dependent peasants;
• in capitalist society, the capitalists (the bourgeoisie) and the workers (the proletariat);
• there will be no classes in a communist society.

In modern sociology, one often speaks of classes in the most general sense - as collections of people with similar life chances, mediated by income, prestige and power:

• upper class: divided into upper upper class (rich people from "old families") and lower upper class (recently rich people);
• middle class: divided into upper middle (professionals) and
• lower middle (skilled workers and employees); The lower class is divided into an upper lower class (unskilled workers) and a lower lower class (lumpen and marginals).

The lower lower class are groups of the population that, for various reasons, do not fit into the structure of society. In fact, their representatives are excluded from the social class structure, so they are also called declassed elements.

The declassed elements include lumpen - vagabonds, beggars, beggars, as well as outcasts - those who have lost their social characteristics and have not acquired a new system of norms and values ​​in return, for example, former factory workers who lost their jobs due to the economic crisis, or peasants, driven off the land during industrialization.

Strata - groups of people with similar characteristics in a social space. This is the most universal and broadest concept, which makes it possible to single out any fractional elements in the structure of society according to a set of various socially significant criteria. For example, such strata as elite specialists, professional entrepreneurs, government officials, office workers, skilled workers, unskilled workers, etc. are distinguished. Classes, estates and castes can be considered varieties of strata.

Social stratification reflects presence in society. It shows that strata exist in different conditions and people have different opportunities to meet their needs. Inequality is the source of stratification in society. Thus, inequality reflects differences in the access of representatives of each layer to social benefits, and stratification is a sociological characteristic of the structure of society as a set of layers.