Creative project in geography on the topic of the hydrosphere. Project work in geography on the topic: “Pollution of the hydrosphere with detergents. Letter and number dictations
Mukhina Daria Valerievna
Project work in geography on the topic:
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Municipal budgetary educational institution
"Pochinokinel secondary school"
Project work in geography on the topic:
"Pollution of the hydrosphere with detergents"
The work was done by a 11th grade student
MBOU "Pochinokinelskaya secondary school"
Komsomolsky district of the Chechen Republic
Mukhina Daria Valerievna
Leader: geography teacher
Krasnova Svetlana Vladimirovna
D. Pochinok Ineli
2015
Introduction page 2
I. Synthetic detergents page 3-5
- Harm of detergents to the organic world page 3
- Impact of detergents on human life page 4
- Domestic wastewater treatment page 4-5
II. Practical part - experiment pp. 5-8
Conclusion page 9
List of references page 10
Applications: page 11
1. Diagram 1 page 11
2. Diagram 2 page 11
Introduction
After reviewing materials on the Internet, in geography lessons, I learned that there is a problem of pollution of the hydrosphere. The topic is relevant because every person is involved in the pollution of the hydrosphere. I wanted to dwell on detergents, since they do no less harm to water. Each person washes their hands, dishes, clothes, cleans the apartment with detergents, so I decided to prove using the example of my family and my region that even a small proportion of people, without thinking how harmful it is, spend a huge amount of detergents per day.
Theme of my research work called "Pollution of the hydrosphere with detergents."
Purpose: to prove how huge the scale of pollution of the hydrosphere with detergents that affect the organic world and the composition of water.
Tasks:
- Study literature, media materials, collect and analyze statistical data on the topic.
- Conduct a series of experiments proving the volume of river pollution with detergents.
- Conduct a series of surveys to identify the attitude of others to the use of detergents.
In my work, I use the following methods: a survey, analysis of statistical data and the media, an experiment with the calculation of the results of the use of detergents in my family and an approximate calculation of the use by the inhabitants of Tatarstan, as well as the volume of discharge into the waters of the rivers of this territory.
- Synthetic detergents
I studied the literature, media materials, collected and analyzed statistical data on the topic and found answers to some questions:
When and who invented detergents?
The first soap, the simplest detergent, was made in the Middle East over 5,000 years ago. Initially, it was used for washing and treating wounds. And only from the 1st century AD. people began to use soap for personal hygiene. But the first synthetic detergent appeared only in 1916, the inventor of which is the German chemist Fritz Ponter, it was intended for industrial use. Household synthetic detergents began to be produced in 1935. Since then, a number of synthetic detergents have been developed for specific purposes, and their production has become an important branch of the chemical industry.
What are synthetic detergents and how do they work?
According to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, synthetic detergents are “substances or mixtures of substances used in aqueous solutions for cleaning (washing) the surface solids from pollution." Another name for synthetic detergents is detergents.Detergents are made up of two parts. One part soluble in oil, and the second part isdissolves in water. Dirt that needs to be washed off with detergents does not dissolve in water. For example, fat or oil. Therefore, synthetic detergents are substances that, with the help of their dual structure, allow to dissolve in water what water cannot dissolve.
1. Harm of detergents to the organic world.
So you bought dishwashing detergent. Used this product when washing dishes. All water after washing went down the drain. What next? And then it gets into rivers, lakes, groundwater.The main victims of the progressive chemical industry are fish, plankton, and other aquatic animals. For the inhabitants of the aquatic world, SMS is very harmful, especially foranimals that breathe with gills. Why are they suffering? Because the SMS sticks to the gills, water starts to stick to the SMS, water flows into the gills, and the fish choke. And they die. Or (if there are not very many detergents), they simply grow sick and frail. In other words: in the normal state, although water enters the gills, it does not touch them, since they are covered with a substance that repels water - a special fat. And since detergents dissolve fat, fish can't use their gills.
- The influence of detergents on human life.
The ingress of synthetic detergents into the human body with water is still possible. It primarily happens when a person eats or drinks.from dishes poorly washed from detergents.Another route of exposure to synthetic detergents is while bathing. It is most common in children.What can all this lead to? As you know, in the human stomach, hydrochloric acid is constantly present, which breaks down food protein.The stomach is covered with a mucous membrane from the inside, which performs a protective role from the harmful effects of hydrochloric acid. The mucous membrane has a fatty base.If SMS from an unwashed plate enters the human body, that is, the stomach, then the protective shell around the walls of the stomach becomes thinner.Especially if the human body is weakened, for example,stress, lack of vitamins, then SMS, even in scanty amounts, can lead to stomach ulcers, an overdose of bile, disruption of the gallbladder and other serious diseases.
So, detergents cause tremendous harm to the composition of water and the organic world. Water from kitchens, toilets, showers, baths, laundries, canteens, hospitals, domestic premises, industrial enterprises All of this is domestic wastewater. The production and widespread use of synthetic surfactants, especially in the composition of detergents, led to their entry with wastewater into many water bodies, including sources of domestic and drinking water supply. The Volga, the largest river in Europe, is in a difficult ecological situation. More than 60 million people live in its basin, more than 30% of the industrial and agricultural products of our country are produced. The reduction in water exchange and the simultaneous increase in the volume of wastewater created a difficult hydrochemical situation. There was a threat of destruction of ecosystems in the Volga Delta. In 100% of the caught fish, serious genetic anomalies were identified.
3. Purification of household sewage.
Sewerage is a complex of engineering structures and sanitary measures that ensure the collection and removal of polluted wastewater from populated areas and industrial enterprises, their purification, neutralization and disinfection. Cities and other settlements discharge through sewerage systems 22 billion m 3 wastewater per year. Of these, 70% passes through treatment facilities, including 94% - facilities for complete biological treatment.
13.3 billion m3 are annually discharged through public sewerage systems into surface water bodies 3 wastewater, of which 8% passes through treatment facilities, and the remaining 92% is discharged contaminated. Most of the wastewater treatment plants are overloaded, and almost half require reconstruction.
For disinfection of wastewater, the dose of chlorine is selected so that the content of Escherichia coli in the water discharged into the reservoir does not exceed 1000 in 1 liter, and the level of sedimentary chlorine is at least 1.5 mg / l with a 30-minute contact or 1 mg /
l at 60-minute contact. Disinfection is carried out with liquid chlorine, bleach or sodium hypochlorite, obtained on site in electrolyzers. Chlorine management of sewage treatment facilities should allow increasing the estimated dose of chlorine by 1.5 times. However, the population very often uses chlorine-containing products to clean the premises, which can inevitably cause enormous harm when the water flows.
II. Practical part - experiment
I live in the Republic of Tatarstan. And I study in neighboring Chuvashia. Both the Chuvash and Tatar Republics are located in the Volga basin.
In order to prove to what extent the problem of pollution of the Volga is actually created by the inhabitants of this region, I decided to conduct several studies, one of which was the experiment: "Consumption of detergents by my family."
In order to prove what a huge amount of detergents humanity spends, first I found out how much detergent my family consumes and calculated the results (Table 1).
There are six people in my family. I started my research by counting the consumption of each detergent, first for a week, then for a month, a year and 10 years.
In everyday life, irreplaceable things in personal hygiene are used - these are soaps, shampoos, balms, toothpaste and all sorts of other products. Since there are six of us in the family, the consumption of personal hygiene products is high: we spend about 180 ml of all hygiene products per week, 2.2 liters per month, about 26.4 liters per year, and as much as 264 liters per 10 years.
We use Persil washing powder and wash about 3 times a week. After the calculation, I determined that we spend about 250 g per week, 1 kg per month, 12 kg per year and 120 kg per 10 years.
We mainly use AOS dishwashing detergent. We wash the dishes by hand, usually they don’t use them in the villages dishwasher. We use about 500 g per month, 6 liters per year and, accordingly, 60 liters per 10 years.
We do not use cleaning products and chlorine-containing products as often as other detergents: per week - 130 g, per month - 520 g, per year - about 6.5 kg, per 10 years - 65 kg; even from this calculation you can see what a huge amount of cleaning and chlorine-containing products we spend.
From the results obtained during the study, I was able to conclude that my family in total uses approximately 2 kg and 720 ml of all detergents per month; 24 kg and 8 liters 700 ml - in one year; 240 kg and 87 l - for 10 years (table 1).
Table 1. My family's consumption of detergents
Detergents | Consumption |
|||
A week | Month | Year | 10 years |
|
Laundry detergent "Persil" | 250 g | 1 kg | 12 kg | 120 kg |
Soap (liquid) "Velvet Hands" | 30 ml | 120 ml | 1.5 l | 15 l |
Dishwashing liquid "AOS" | 125 g | 500 g | 6 kg | 60 kg |
Shampoo + balm "Timotei" | 62.5 ml | 250 ml | 3 l | 30 l |
Gel for personal hygiene | 62.5 ml | 250 ml | 3 l | 30 l |
Colgate Toothpaste | 25 ml | 100 ml | 1.2 l | 12 l |
Cleaning products | 80 g | 320 g | 4 kg | 40 kg |
50 g | 200 g | 2.5 kg | 25 kg |
|
Total | 500 g; 180 ml | 2 kg; 720 ml | 24 kg; 8 l 700 ml | 240 kg; 87 l |
Seeing how much my family pollutes, first of all, the Kubnya River, then the Sviyaga and the Volga, I wanted to find out how much detergent waste is thrown out by the inhabitants of my street and village.
On the first question: “Do you use detergents?” all unanimously said: "Yes" (Appendix 1).
On the second question: "How often do you use detergents?" all unanimously answered: “Every day” (Appendix 2).
On the third question: "How often do you wash?" I got the following result (diagram 3):
12 opponents out of 27 answered that they do laundry about 3 times a week;
3 opponents wash more than 3 times a week (4 times);
9 opponents answered that they do laundry twice a week:
3 opponents answered that they wash once a week.
Diagram 3 (survey)
On average, it turns out: they wash 3 times a week. Based on the fact that in our family, on average, 4 kg and 1 liter 450 ml of cleaning products are consumed per person per year, I calculated how many detergents the inhabitants of my street approximately use:
Per month 26 kg and 10 liters of detergents;
312 kg and 113 liters of detergents per year. 7
It became interesting to me how much money the inhabitants of my village, Bolshoye Tyaberdino, use. Since the population of the village is 571 people, it consumes almost 2300 kg and 830 liters of detergents per year. I wanted to know how many times these figures will increase if we calculate how much detergent is used by the population of the Kaibitsky district, which includes my locality and the population of Tatarstan as a whole. The result, of course, is horrendous: the district consumes almost 70 tons and 22 thousand liters, and the republic as a whole, 15 million kg or 15 thousand tons and 5.5 million liters of cleaning products (Table 2).
Table 2. Consumption of detergents per year
And if we take into account the fact that the townspeople also use dishwashers and, in general, in my opinion, the urban population uses more hygiene products and, of course, various detergents and cleaning products.
As a result, from the survey, I found out that people do not even think about the problems of pollution of the hydrosphere with detergents. Therefore, there is a question and an unresolved problem of the operation of treatment facilities. I am not sure that treatment facilities can fully cope with such a large number of chemical emissions, especially since most of them are classified as obsolete. And in the villages there is no need to talk about sewage treatment plants for the simple reason that there are no sewers. Here, everything that flows down from the houses flows freely into the groundwater and, ultimately, into the rivers. Can we be sure that we do not use this water for food.
Conclusion
So, as a result of my experiment, one of the causes of river pollution, in particular the Volga, was proved. The soul is torn from the scale of pollution, knowing that more than 60 million people live in the Volga basin. The consumption of detergents and cleaners in Tatarstan alone is 15 thousand tons and 5.5 million liters per year, despite the fact that the population of the republic is 3,786,488 people. Due to the fact that millions of kilograms of detergent residues are thrown together with water into rivers and wastewater, we can conclude: what enormous harm we do to inland waters, which we subsequently use. I understand that I cannot solve this problem alone, but I can call people to rational use detergents. I think if I present the results of research, for example, at the school where I study, then perhaps people will think about it and use detergents wisely.
List of used literature
1. Media materials:
http://www.tatstat.ru/
2. Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Applications
Appendix 1.
Diagram 1 (survey).
Appendix 2
Diagram 2 (survey).
slide 2
HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere is a discontinuous water shell of the Earth, located between the atmosphere and the solid earth's crust (lithosphere) and representing the totality of the waters of the oceans, seas and surface waters of the land.
The hydrosphere covers 70.8% of the earth's surface
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THE WATER CYCLE IN NATURE
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1. WORLD OCEAN
The World Ocean is a continuous water shell of the Earth, surrounding the continents and islands and having a common salt composition (99% of the total salts are sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, chlorine and sulfur ions); the average concentration of saline solution is 35 g/l.
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WORLD OCEAN
The World Ocean is the main part of the hydrosphere, it occupies about 70.8% of the surface of the globe
- Average depth - 3795 m
- The greatest depth is 11022 m (Marian Trench)
- Water volume - 1370 million km³
Slide 7
1.1 OCEANS AND SEA
Slide 8
PACIFIC OCEAN
Slide 9
The largest and deepest of all oceans on the planet
- Surface - 181.34 million km2
- Salinity - 33 - 37 ‰
- Water temperature - from 29˚С to -3˚С in polar regions
- Average depth - 3980m
- The greatest depth - 11022m (Marian Trench)
- There is intense volcanic activity at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean
Slide 10
ATLANTIC OCEAN
slide 12
INDIAN OCEAN
Slide 14
ARCTIC OCEAN
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The youngest of the oceans
- Surface - 14.75 million km2
- Salinity - 30 (by the end of summer) - 34 ‰
- Temperature - in winter it is close to the freezing point of sea water, in summer it rises by 0.1 - 0.2 ° C
- Average depth - 1220m
- The greatest depth is 5527m (Greenland Sea)
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SOUTH OCEAN
Slide 17
The Southern Ocean appeared on the maps quite recently. In the spring of 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization decided to declare the body of water north of the coast of Antarctica to 60 degrees south latitude as a separate ocean - the South. The decision is based on the latest oceanographic data indicating the uniqueness of the waters surrounding Antarctica.
- Area: 20,327 million km2
- Maximum depth: South Sandwich Trench - 7,235 m
Slide 18
SEA
Sea - a part of the ocean more or less isolated by islands, peninsulas or underwater heights (the exception is the Sargasso Sea, located inside the ocean)
By the location of the sea there are
- Outlying
- Internal
- Intercontinental
- inland
- Interisland
Slide 19
SEA, BAYS
Seas make up about 10% of the world's oceans
The largest seas are the Philippine, Arabian, Coral
A bay is a part of an ocean or sea that extends into land. Bays are less isolated than seas, so their regime is closer to open oceans.
Slide 20
STRAITS
Strait - a relatively narrow part of the ocean or sea that separates two areas of land and connects two adjacent bodies of water
- The widest (1120 km) and deepest (5249 m) Drake Passage
- The longest (1760 km) Mozambique Channel
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1.2 PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
- Temperature
- Salinity
- Freezing
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1.2.1 THERMAL OCEAN
The temperature of the entire mass of ocean water is about 4 ° C
The average temperature of surface waters is more than 17˚С, and in the northern hemisphere it is 3˚С higher than in the southern
- Daily fluctuations in water temperature do not exceed 1˚С
- Annual fluctuations - no more than 5 - 10˚С in temperate latitudes
- Surface water temperature is zoned
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COMPOSITION MAP OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE WORLD OCEAN
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1.2.2. SALINITY OF SEA WATER
Salinity is the amount of salts in grams dissolved in 1 kg (l) of sea water.
- Expressed in ppm, i.e. in thousandths (‰)
- The average salinity of ocean water is 35‰
In the distribution of salinity of surface waters, zonality is traced, primarily due to the ratio of precipitation and evaporation
Slide 25
1.2.3. FREEZING SEA WATER
Freezing of sea water occurs at negative temperatures: at an average salinity - about -2˚С
The higher the salinity, the lower the freezing point
Ice covers about 15% of the world's oceans
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ICEBERGS
Slide 27
1.3. MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE OCEAN
1. Wind waves
3. Tidal waves
4. Sea currents
Slide 28
1.3.1. WIND WAVES
Wind waves - oscillatory movements of the water surface
Formed by wind energy with the direct impact of the air flow on the surface of the water
Reach a length of 400 m, a height of 25 m, a propagation velocity of 14-15 m/s
Slide 29
1.3.2. TSUNAMI
Tsunamis are long sea gravity waves that occur mainly during underwater earthquakes as a result of an upward (or downward) shift of extended bottom sections.
Propagation speed from 50 to 1000 km/h
Altitude in the area of occurrence from 0.1 to 5 m, near the coast from 10 to 50 m or more
slide 30
TSUNAMI
Slide 31
1.3.3. TIDAL WAVES
Tidal waves cause the surface of the Sea Ocean to fluctuate relative to its average level due to the attraction of the Earth by the Moon and the Sun
The maximum height (18m) is observed near the Nova Scotia Peninsula
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Starfish waiting for the tide
Slide 33
Caves on the coast of the Indian Ocean at high tide, they are filled with water
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1.3.4. CURRENTS
Sea currents are horizontal movements of water in the oceans and seas, characterized by a certain direction and speed.
Their length reaches several thousand kilometers, width - tens, hundreds of kilometers, depth - hundreds of meters.
The flows are multi-jet and multilayer, and on both sides of the axial zone they represent a system of vortices
Slide 35
CLASSIFICATION OF CURRENTS
By duration
- Permanent
- Periodic
- Temporary
By location depth
- Surface
- deep
- benthic
By temperature
- Warm
- cold
slide 36
Sea currents in the Far East
Slide 37
Slide 38
2. WATER LAND
1. Groundwater
5. Glaciers
Slide 39
2.1. THE GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is water found in soils and rocks in the upper part of the earth's crust.
The groundwater. Forming an aquifer on the first water-resistant layer from the surface, they are called ground
aquifers. Enclosed between two water-resistant layers are called interstratal
Slide 40
INTER-STOCK WATER
If the interstratal waters completely fill the aquifer and are under pressure, they are called pressure
Pressure waters enclosed in layers lying in concave tectonic structures are called artesian
Slide 41
2.2. RIVERS
A river is a natural water flow that flows in the same place (channel) constantly or intermittently during the dry season (drying rivers).
The place from which a constant flow of water appears in the channel - the source, in most cases can only be determined conditionally. The source of a river is often a spring, swamp, lake, or glacier. If a river is formed by the confluence of two smaller rivers, then the place of their confluence is the beginning of this river
The place where a river flows into another, into a lake or into the sea is called its mouth.
Slide 48
- MOUNTAIN GLACIERS
occupy the tops of mountains, various depressions on their slopes and valleys
- COVERS
having great power, hiding all the unevenness of the terrain and occupying a large area
View all slides
Water, both sea and fresh, has many anomalous properties that depend mainly on changes in two external parameters: pressure and temperature. 1. Fresh water has no smell, color, taste; sea water has a taste, color and may have an odor. 2. Under natural conditions, only water has three aggregate states: solid (ice), liquid (water) and gaseous (water vapor). The presence of salts in water changes its phase transformations. Fresh water on land at a pressure of 1 atmosphere has a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling point of 100°C. Sea water at a pressure of one atmosphere and a salinity of 35‰ has a freezing point of about -1.9°C and a boiling point of 100.55°C. The boiling point depends on atmospheric pressure: the higher the height above the ground, the lower it is. 3. Water does not freeze at the highest density temperature (4°C), like all solutions, but at 0°C; sea water has a lower temperature due to salinity. 4. Water is a universal solvent; it dissolves more salts and other substances than any other substance.
slide 1
HYDROSPHERE OF THE EARTH
Completed by: student of the 134th group of the Professional Lyceum No. 9 Trembak Vladimir Geography teacher Valdaeva L.O.
slide 2
Water! You have no taste, no color, no smell, you cannot be described, you are enjoyed without knowing what you are! It cannot be said that you are necessary for life: you are life itself. You fill us with a joy that cannot be explained by our feelings. You are the greatest wealth in the world. Antoine de Saint-Exupery
slide 3
HYDROSPHERE
(from hydro ... and sphere) - the totality of all water bodies of the globe: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, groundwater, glaciers and snow cover. Often, the hydrosphere refers only to the oceans and seas.
slide 4
slide 5
The first assumes:
Water on the Earth stood out from its bowels in the process of cooling the planet in the early stages of its formation - several billion years ago. It is confirmed by the fact that water is indeed contained in the mantle and continues to be released to the surface during volcanic eruptions in the form of steam.
slide 6
Another hypothesis
On the contrary, he claims that water was brought to Earth from outer space by comets falling on its surface, which really consist of ice.
Slide 7
Slide 9
All other planets are either too cold or too hot for that. Although there are suggestions that liquid water can form from ice in the equatorial regions of Mars, where the temperature rises to positive levels, and the water ocean can be under the ice shell of Europa, one of Jupiter's satellites, however, unequivocal confirmation of this has not yet been found. Although, this does not mean that the liquid shell of the planet is only on Earth.
Slide 10
slide 11
water covers more than 70% of the surface of the globe, and the average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. The hydrosphere is 96% water of the World Ocean, in which salts are dissolved (on average 3.5‰), as well as a number of gases. The upper layer of the ocean contains 140 trillion tons of carbon dioxide and 8 trillion tons of dissolved oxygen. tons.
slide 12
The volume of the hydrosphere is enormous
1370 million cubic meters km, which is 1/800 of the volume of the planet Earth. This volume is distributed in the following way: - world ocean - 1120 million cubic meters. km; - thickness of the earth's crust - 200 million cubic meters. km; - continental glaciers and glaciers of polar regions - 30 million cubic meters. km; - rivers, lakes and swamps - 4 million cubic meters. km; - atmosphere - 12 thousand cubic meters km. The amount of water in the hydrosphere is almost constant.
slide 13
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The World Ocean unites 4 largest oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic, with a total area of 361 million km², and all the seas are parts of the oceans that protrude into the land and are separated from it by islands, peninsulas or underwater ridges. The average depth of the World Ocean is 3704 m, the greatest is 11022 m (Marian Trench). The bottom of the seas and oceans has a complex, although less dissected than land, relief.
slide 16
Slide 17
Slide 18
Slide 19
Slide 20
relief of the southern ocean
Location: southern hemisphere, the ocean boundary conditionally runs from 35 ° S. up to 60° S Area: 20327 thousand km Average depth: 3500 m. Maximum depth: South Sandwich Trench - 7235 m. Inhabitants: krill, sponges, echinoderms, 28 families and 203 species of bottom and bottom fish, petrels, skuas, penguins, whales, seals. Current: Antarctic Circumpolar (Western Current)
Southern Ocean, water area surrounding Antarctica; the southern part of three oceans: Pacific, Atlantic and Indian. Strong winds drive surface waters to the east, forming the West Winds current, or the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the only one in the world encircling the Earth and nowhere interrupted by land. Around Antarctica, especially over the continental shelf of the Weddell Sea, a cold and dense water mass (Antarctic Bottom Water) is formed. In summer, many icebergs break off the continental ice sheet and drift up to 55°S. and even further north. It is assumed that the continental shelf of Antarctica is rich in oil. The main resource at present is large stocks of krill (planktonic crustaceans), the production of which is increasing.
slide 21
The ecological state of the oceans
Experts from Stanford University recently published disturbing data. For many years, scientists have assessed the ability of the oceans to absorb carbon dioxide as positive. Absorbing a third of atmospheric CO2, it significantly restrained the onset of global warming. However, saving the planet from climate change, the World Ocean annually absorbs more and more greenhouse gases and, as it turned out, significantly changes its own environment.
According to researchers from the US Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, over the past two centuries, the acidity of the oceans has increased by a third. For example, under the influence of carbon dioxide, corals not only slow down growth, but also gradually decay. CO2, getting into the water, literally eats them up. harmful effects shellfish and plankton are also exposed.
University of Miami professor Christopher Langdon found that carbon dioxide dissolves their shells and shells. And the disappearance of these organisms, in turn, will put salmon, mackerel and whales on the brink of survival. People will also suffer from the destruction of marine food chains.
slide 22
Sea water is a solution of 44 chemical compounds: table salt NaCl, magnesium salt MgCl, gases CO2, O2, N2, etc. The average salinity of water is 3.5 ‰. The temperature depends on latitude, terrain, currents, seasons, etc., varying from -2ºС to 35ºС; at a depth of 350 m it is constant throughout the year; at a depth of more than 3 km, almost everywhere it is 2-3 Cº. The invariability of the salt composition of water at great depths indicates the constant mixing of all the waters of the World Ocean.
slide 23
REMEMBER!!!
The average salinity of the World Ocean is 15 ‰ The temperature of surface waters in the ocean decreases from the equator to the poles
slide 24
1. Which ocean is the largest in area and the deepest? 2. What is the maximum depth of the ocean? 3. What is the smallest ocean?
1 slide
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Main literature: Bogoslovsky B.B., General hydrology. - M., 1984. Hydrosphere: Textbook for pedagogical universities (vulture) - M .: Education, 1976. Davydov L.K., Dmitrieva A.A., Konkina N.G., General hydrology - Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad , 1973. Zalogin B.S., Kuzminskaya K.S. World Ocean: Tutorial. - M., 2001. Mikhailov V.N., Dobrovolsky A.D., General hydrology. - M., 1991.
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Hydrology (the science of water) is engaged in the study of natural waters, the phenomena and processes occurring in them, as well as determining the distribution of water over the earth's surface and in the thickness of soil and soil, and the patterns by which these phenomena and processes develop. : oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, swamps and accumulations of moisture in the form of snow cover, glaciers, soil and groundwater. clarification of the physical laws of the interaction of water with the environment (the laws of movement of water masses, evaporation of water, melting of snow and ice cover, the impact of water on the river bed, etc.) determination of the geographical characteristics of water bodies (their distribution over the territory, sizes, general descriptions) hydrological research:
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Object and subject of study of land waters Hydrometry considers the methods of measurements and observations carried out with the aim of studying the hydrological regime of waters. Hydrography deals with the description of water bodies of certain territories and the elucidation of the patterns of their geographical distribution. The task of general hydrology of land includes the illumination of general patterns governing the processes of formation and activity of land waters (for example, elucidation of the patterns of formation of a hydrographic network, moisture circulation processes, the relationship of hydrological phenomena with meteorological factors and conditions of the underlying surface). In engineering hydrology, methods for calculating and predicting the characteristics of the hydrological regime, and issues of water management construction are considered. The content of the physics of land waters (hydrophysics) is the study of physical and mechanical properties natural waters in any state of aggregation, patterns of evaporation in nature, in particular from the surface of water and land, the formation and melting of snow and ice, the thermal regime of reservoirs and other processes associated with phase transformations of water. Hydrochemistry deals with the study of the chemical properties of land waters, the problem of water quality. The study of the patterns of movement of water masses, unrest, surge phenomena, currents is united by the concept of "land water dynamics". The task of the science of channel processes includes the study of phenomena and processes occurring under the influence of a complex of various natural and anthropogenic factors, and expressed in changes in the shape and parameters of river channels.
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The concept of the "hydrosphere": The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth (Süss, 1888). Hydrosphere - the earth's shell, presented in the form of accumulations of surface water (Vernadsky), often identified the hydrosphere with the oceans. The hydrosphere is a discontinuous water shell of the Earth, including only free waters (without chemically and physically bound water in the earth's crust) (Lvovich). The hydrosphere is a single shell that includes all types of natural waters (Alpatiev). The hydrosphere is free surface and groundwater, as well as chemically and physically bound water of the earth's crust (Yermolaev).
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The hydrosphere is in close relationship with other geospheres. Atmospheric moisture connects with the atmosphere. Underground water connects with the earth's crust, and juvenile underground water, i.e., connects with the Earth's mantle. for the first time entering from the depths of the Earth into the underground hydrosphere. Relations with the biosphere are more complicated. the participation of water in biological processes, starting from the origin of life. formation with its participation in the process of photosynthesis of organic matter - the basis of the animal world and soil formation. associated with the process of transpiration.
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Origin of the hydrosphere The most common hypotheses Endogenous degassing of molten magma, ejection of water in the form of steam by volcanoes through sources such as modern "black" or "white" smokers Cosmic as part of the pro-Earth and meteorites, asteroids Endogenous and cosmic Formation of the primary hydrosphere and atmosphere can be represented in two stage
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Stages of development of the hydrosphere Development went along with the lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere Era The main character of development Cenozoic laid the foundation of modern hydrosulfur Mesozoic laid the outlines of modern oceans Paleozoic crust differentiates into continental and oceanic. therefore, the hydrosphere is subdivided into the oceans and land waters. Proterozoic green plants appear, so part of the water is spent on photosynthesis; Two oppositely directed processes appeared in the hydrosphere: the inflow of water from the mantle and its removal by photosynthesis. the atmosphere is saturated with O2. At the same time, the development of continents, mountain building, and the formation of a powerful weathering crust proceeded. these processes also bound a significant mass of water and O2. Archaea, juvenile water was flowing from the mantle, there were no plants yet, so the water was not decomposed by photosynthesis; the volume of the hydrosphere increased.
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Properties of natural waters No. Properties of water Meaning in nature 1 Water H2O is the simplest and most stable compound of H and O2. Because of this, water is a strong solvent. Water can dissolve several substances at the same time. Allows you to supply food to plants, animals, water is involved in biological and technological processes. 2 Water is a substance near the Earth's surface present in three states of aggregation The omnipresence of water, which is important for biological processes 3 Water is a powerful geological factor. It dissolves and destroys minerals and rocks Promotes relief formation 4 Unusual behavior of water at ordinary temperatures Ice does not sink, but floats on the surface and freshwater reservoirs do not freeze to the bottom. Sea water freezes differently than fresh water. 5 Water has the highest heat capacity compared to other substances Provides the absorption of a large amount of heat by water bodies. Reservoirs do not dry up in summer, plants and animals do not die. 6 Water has a higher surface tension Water can rise to great heights through the capillaries in the soil and does not freeze in the capillaries even at -30°C.
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* There are disputes regarding the advisability of separating these waters into a separate ocean. Many do not support its existence and divide the southern waters between three neighboring oceans. This ocean is very rarely displayed on a geographical map of the world.
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Water reserves on the globe, (according to V.N. Mikhailov and A.D. Dobrovolsky, 1991) Types of natural waters Area Volume, thousand km3 Share in world reserves, % Average period of conditional renewal of water reserves (water exchange activity) million km2 land area, % of total water reserves of fresh water reserves Water on the surface of the lithosphere World Ocean 361 - 1338000 96.4 - 2650 years Glaciers and permanent snow cover 16.3 11 25800 1.86 70.3 9700 years Lakes, c. including freshwater 2.1 1.2 1.4 0.8 176 91 0.013 0.007 - 0.25 17 years - Reservoirs 0.4 0.3 6 0.0004 0.016 52 days River water - - 2 0.0002 0.005 19 days Water in swamps 2.7 1.8 11 0.0008 0.03 5 years Water in the upper part of the lithosphere Groundwater incl. fresh - - - - 23400 10530 1.68 0.76 - 28.7 1400 years - Ground ice of the permafrost zone 2.1 14 300 0.022 0.82 10000 years Water in the atmosphere and in organisms Water in the atmosphere - - 13 0.001 0 .04 8 days Water in organisms - - 1 0.0001 0.003 Several hours Total water reserves Total water reserves incl. fresh - - - - 1388000 36700 100 2.64 - 100 - -
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The main factors of moisture circulation: Moisture circulation on the Earth, a continuous process of water movement in the geographic shell of the Earth, accompanied by its phase transformations. Composed mainly of: Evaporation of water Transport of water vapor over the distance of condensation of water vapor Rainfall from clouds Infiltration of fallen water - infiltration of runoff Solar radiation Gravity (results in raindrops, rivers, etc.).
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The value of moisture circulation in nature: Heat and moisture are transferred; It connects the earth's shells, the formation of a geographical shell began with the circulation; Thanks to the cycle, all the waters of the hydrosphere are interconnected; During the cycle, fresh water is formed.
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Atmospheric link It is characterized by the transfer of moisture in the process of air circulation and the formation of precipitation. The general circulation of the atmosphere has a remarkable property - comparative stability from year to year, but with significant seasonal variability. The average layer of precipitation on land is 765 mm, in the ocean - 1140 mm, for the entire globe - 1030 mm, i.e. a little more than 1 m. In volume, the corresponding values are equal: for land - 113.5 thousand km3 (22% ), for the ocean - 411.6 thousand km3 (78%), for the entire globe - 525.1 thousand km3. The direct role of air circulation in the water cycle is the redistribution of atmospheric moisture around the globe. On the continents, more precipitation falls than the atmosphere receives moisture due to evaporation from the land. The difference is made up by the transfer of atmospheric moisture from the ocean to land.
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Oceanic link The process of evaporation of water, which replenishes the content of water vapor in the atmosphere (more than 86% of evaporation from the surface of the ocean and less than 14% - evaporation from the land). In the ocean area, the consumption of water for evaporation is uneven: In the equatorial zone, the consumption of water for evaporation is less than the annual amount of precipitation due to large clouds. In temperate latitudes, less water evaporates than precipitation falls due to lack of heat. In the tropical and subtropical zones, more moisture evaporates from the surface of the ocean than falls due to the high transparency of the atmosphere and the large amount of heat. There is an internal oceanic water exchange under the influence of currents. (table). The volume of water masses carried by currents in the oceans and the intensity of their water exchange according to V. G. Kort (1962) Oceans Area, mln. km2 Volume, mln. km3 Annual discharge of transported water masses, mln. km3 Water exchange intensity (number of years) Pacific Atlantic Indian Arctic 180 93 75 13 725 338 290 17 6.56 7.30 7.40 0.44 110 46 39 38 World Ocean 363 1370 21.70 63
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Lithogenic link The participation of groundwater in the water cycle is very diverse. Deep underground waters, mainly brines, are extremely weakly connected with the upper layers of groundwater and with other parts of the water cycle. Very slowly seeping into the depths and replenished due to the degassing of the mantle, huge accumulations of water formed at depths (most often more than 1-2 km). They are usually highly mineralized, up to strong brines, which is the main sign of weak metabolism. Fresh groundwater occurs mainly in the zone of active water exchange, in the upper part of the earth's crust drained by river valleys, lakes and seas. Without this source, the water regime of the rivers would be even more variable - water would appear in the rivers only during rains or snowmelt, and the rest of the time the rivers would dry up. Only in arid zones does groundwater receive very little nourishment, it quickly dries up, and their contribution to the feeding of rivers is very insignificant. The distribution of groundwater over the territory and the intensity of their renewal are associated with the geological structure and geographical zoning. The nature of the rocks, their combination, the shape of the relief, the exposure of the slopes, etc. are important.
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Soil link Soil moisture differs from groundwater in some features. First, it is associated with biological processes to a much greater extent than groundwater. Secondly, soil moisture, to a greater extent than groundwater, is related to the nature of the weather. Evaporation does not only occur from the soil surface; soil moisture is also spent on transpiration, the roots of plants absorb moisture from the depth to which they extend. Soil moisture feeds on groundwater. The soil link of the cycle has a great influence on the water content and water regime of rivers. Although the one-time volume of soil moisture is relatively small, it is quickly replaced and plays an important role in the water cycle, in biogenic processes and in economic life.
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The river link The role of rivers in the cycle process is to return to the ocean that part of the water that is transported in the form of vapor by the atmosphere from the ocean to land. All sources of river nutrition are divided into two groups: surface and underground. Their ratio depends on a number of physical and geographical factors (climate, geology, topography, soil and vegetation cover, etc.). Surface runoff, or water flowing into riverbeds on the soil surface, can be of different origin (snow, rain, glacial and underground). The role of man in the redistribution of the river link is significant.
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Lake link From the surface of the lake, evaporation is greater than from the land surrounding them. The lake link of the water cycle is inextricably linked with the river link. There are very few lakes that are not connected with rivers. The main role of flowing lakes in the water cycle is the regulation of river flow, its alignment in time. Examples are r. Neva, whose runoff is well regulated by a whole system of lakes, including Ladoga and Onega. The Angara River is almost perfectly regulated by the deepest lake in the world and the largest lake in Asia. Baikal; river runoff St. Lawrence, regulated by the Great Lakes system. Artificial lakes - reservoirs - are even more important for water regulation. About 1400 reservoirs have been created on the globe. An important feature of lakes and reservoirs is that they are more or less closed ecosystems in which a complex set of interrelated processes takes place: mechanical (flow, waves, sediment movement), physical (thermal, ice phenomena), chemical and biological. In reservoirs with a high degree of flow, these processes approach the conditions of rivers. But large lakes with relatively weak flow (for example, such as Baikal, Nyasa, Tanganyika, Victoria, Superior, Michigan), which have a larger volume of water mass compared to its inflow, are distinguished by the originality of ecosystems.
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Biological link This link of the water cycle is very complex and diverse. More water is consumed by plants, animals, and humans to maintain the vital functions of the body. The biological link of the water cycle also includes aquatic animals and plants, for which the seas, lakes, rivers - the environment of existence. Photosynthesis occurs with the participation of water. Transpiration is a physical process, but it differs from ordinary evaporation from inanimate matter by some possibilities of regulation by the plant itself. Therefore, the process of transpiration is also a physiological process. Water consumption for transpiration depends on a large number of factors: the nature of the plant itself (the degree of its xerophyte content), weather conditions, and the presence of moisture in the soil. In dry, hot weather, the plant needs to spend a large amount of water for transpiration. Soil evaporation cannot be considered in isolation from transpiration. Under the forest canopy, little water evaporates from the soil surface, regardless of its presence on the surface. Under these conditions, the main part of the evaporated moisture occurs due to transpiration.
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Economic link The use of water resources, their transformation aimed at improving them as one of the components of the environment surrounding people, occur in the process of the water cycle. The opinion is expressed that the water used for household needs again falls into the water cycle, since the system of this process is closed only on the scale of the globe as a whole. However, this understanding of the return of water in the cycle is too simplistic. Water evaporated during domestic use and released into the atmosphere as a vapor will not necessarily fall again as precipitation in the same area. Most often, atmospheric moisture is transported over long distances and can condense and fall as precipitation far from the area where it entered the atmosphere.
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Water exchange activity For the ocean - about 3000 years. For groundwater - 5,000 years. The main part of groundwater is fossil brines. This condition is explained by their extremely slow water exchange. The duration of the exchange of such waters is estimated at millions of years. The intensity of groundwater exchange in the zone of active exchange is approximately estimated at 300-350 years, but if the sedentary part of groundwater is excluded from this zone and only the part that feeds the rivers is singled out, then the activity of its water exchange can be estimated at tens of years. Soil moisture exchange activity occurs throughout the year, since it is most closely related to atmospheric processes and is mainly subject to seasonal fluctuations. The total activity of the land surface water exchange is 7 years (rivers, lakes, swamps). The exchange of channel river waters occurs every 0.031 year, i.e., every 11 days, or 32 times during the year. The change of the total volume of atmospheric moisture occurs on average every 10 days, or 36 times during the year. The duration of the change of the entire volume of sheet glaciers reaches approximately 8 thousand years. In general, the entire hydrosphere is replaced on average every 2800 years.