Influence of mechanical processing on soil properties. Influence of methods of basic tillage and the degree of technology intensity on the yield of barley in the conditions of the central region of the non-chernozem zone of rassolova elvira gennadievna. The impact of agricultural practices on physical
Tools for processing act on the soil purely mechanically and therefore change mainly its physical properties: density; size and shape of soil aggregates; total volume, dimensions and ratio of various voids, pores and capillaries; the size of organic residues; mutual arrangement and degree of contact of soil phases and their components.
Treatment has a specific effect on the living phase of the soil. Living organisms often die during physical impact on them. When the composition of the treated layer changes and living organisms move within it, the conditions for their existence change significantly, which can also lead to their death. For some groups of organisms, living conditions are improving, these are cultivated plants, some groups of microorganisms, individual representatives of the meso- and macrofauna.
Treatment has a significant impact on the gas phase of the soil. As a result of loosening, crumbling, wrapping, the access of atmospheric air to the soil, especially to the deep layers, increases, which can significantly change the composition of soil air and redox conditions. Processing affects the distribution and composition of air not only in different soil layers, but also on the surface and inside soil aggregates, changing their size, density and shape.
With a single exposure, the treatment has a very slight effect on the granulometric and chemical composition of soils, on the content and composition of organic matter, destroying particles (rarely causing their combination), but with repeated physical impact on some soils, such an effect can be significant.
Under mechanical action on the soil, especially when it is mixed and wrapped, the morphological structure of the soil changes significantly. Crushing and mixing, carried out intensively (for example, during milling) or repeatedly repeated, lead to homogenization of the soil material, to the creation of a morphologically homogeneous soil mass.
In many cases, tillage results in soil differentiation according to morphological characteristics, more often according to soil density. For example, when rolling, the top layer becomes more dense, while loosening - less dense. When processing row spacings, when cultivating the soil with chisel plows, subsoilers, deep looseners, etc., the soil becomes heterogeneous in this indicator in the horizontal direction.
Plowing often leads to morphological heterogeneity of the soil before a uniform tillage horizon. For example, plowing a podzolic or illuvial horizon on podzolic soils, carbonate on chestnut soils leads to a pronounced heterogeneity in color, which reflects the heterogeneity of the soil in terms of properties that determine the conditions for plant life. The plowing of organic fertilizers, plant residues, chemical ameliorants also leads to a morphologically pronounced heterogeneity of the arable horizon. The arable horizon of cultivated soils is especially variegated, if soil layers and horizons of different quality are mixed during plowing, for example, when developing podzolic soils, the arable horizon may consist of black spots of peat litter, whitish - podzolic horizon, gray - humus, reddish-brown - illuvial or transitional horizons.
The change in the state of the soil as a result of tillage significantly affects the regimes and processes in the treated layer and, to a lesser extent, on the rest of the soil mass. This leads to a change in soil properties and its fertility. Usually, tillage changes the water-air regime of soils to the greatest extent, and such an effect can be both positive and negative, despite the fact that the tasks of tillage include changing this regime only in a favorable direction. But, as you know, the tasks of processing often conflict with each other, so the adverse effects of processing must be compensated for by other agricultural practices.
The impact of tillage on soil properties often occurs through soil biota. On cultivated soils, the activity of microorganisms, as a rule, is several times higher than on similar virgin soils; accordingly, the rate of transformation of substances and their biological cycle is higher here. On cultivated soils, a small biological cycle can hardly be called a cycle, since many substances, especially organic ones, are excluded from it. If these losses are not compensated for, taking into account the uniqueness of the processes in cultivated soils, their fertility declines.
The most indicative example in this respect is the use of chernozems in agricultural production. With their intensive plowing over the course of the current century, the loss of humus in these soils, depending on natural conditions and the applied management system, ranged from 20 to 50% or more. Intensive cultivation and a decrease in the humus content led to a decrease in the degree of soil aggregation, a decrease in the content of the most valuable water-stable granular fraction of the soil structure. Such changes are accompanied by an increase in soil density, a deterioration in its water permeability and water capacity, which forces its cultivation to be intensified, and thus a vicious vicious circle is formed.
The processes of soil degradation caused by their plowing, similar to those that take place on chernozems, also take place on other soils and not only in our country. In the soil of the prairies of North America, the loss of humus is similar to its loss on chernozems.
The second powerful factor of soil degradation caused by their plowing is soil erosion. Water erosion and deflation affect almost all soils to some extent. The manifestation of these processes in their extreme expressions leads to catastrophic consequences for the soil - it can completely lose its fertile humus layer. To prevent soil erosion in areas of its intense manifestation, a lot of money and efforts have to be expended.
Changes in water-air and other soil regimes as a result of tillage can cause positive changes in soil properties and increase its fertility. Soils that experience excessive moisture often respond positively to increased aeration. V. V. Dokuchaev wrote back in 1899 that podzolic soils, of course, require enhanced ventilation for agricultural crops, which is still not always taken into account when developing soil cultivation systems. I. B. Makarov (1981) showed that the differentiation of the plow horizon of soddy-podzolic soils, which leads to a deterioration in the properties of this layer with depth, occurs constantly and is interrupted only by mechanical tillage. If the soil is left uncultivated for a long time (tens of years), then differentiation will eventually lead to the acquisition by the former arable horizon of the structure and properties similar to those in similar virgin soils. The lower part of this layer acquires the properties of a podzolic horizon, and the eluvial-gley process plays an important role in such changes. When the arable horizon is deepened by deep loosening of the soil with the Maltsev plow, the periods of waterlogging of the lower part of the arable horizon are significantly reduced, redox conditions change in it, which significantly reduces the intensity of the eluvial-gley process. As a result of the deepening of the arable horizon, the content of humus increases, its qualitative composition improves, acidity decreases, and soil fertility increases.
With excessive moisture and the creation of reducing conditions in any soil, the transformation of organic residues is difficult, the agronomically least valuable fractions predominate in the resulting humus substance, denitrification processes are intensive, and compounds toxic to plants are formed. Increasing soil aeration through tillage can reduce or completely stop the development of these negative phenomena.
Rational tillage can neutralize the negative effects of other agricultural practices. In other cases, on the contrary, some agricultural practices can compensate for the adverse effects of processing. Often the maximum positive effect can be obtained only by combining certain agricultural practices with the most rational in this case tillage.
On chestnut soils, the combination of irrigation and optimal tillage leads to an increase in the humus content, an improvement in the aggregate composition of soils; in this case, more favorable conditions are established for the formation of humic matter, which researchers attribute mainly to changes in the hydrothermal regime of the soil. On the other hand, there are observations that state the deterioration of the properties of chestnut soils during irrigation. The reasons for this phenomenon may be as follows:
A) irrigation was not accompanied by a corresponding change in agricultural technology, b) it was not enough to change only the cultivation system in order to influence soil processes in a positive direction, c) the irrigation regime itself could be far from optimal.
The cultivation of tilled crops, accompanied by intensive tillage and increased aerability of soils, leads to the loss of humus in soils of various types. However, in combination with increased doses of applied manure, more intensive tillage on soddy-podzolic soils contributes to a more rapid accumulation of humus.
On saline soils and solonetzes, maintaining the plow horizon in a loose state and deep loosening of these soils contribute to the leaching of salts from the plow horizon into deeper soil layers, both during irrigation and during natural moisture.
According to V.V. Medvedev (1982), the aggregating ability of the mechanical elements of long-term plowed chernozem is high, therefore, the potential ability of this soil to form micro- and macrostructures is retained for quite a long time. high level. Minimization of cultivation is of great importance as a means of reducing the negative impact of long-term plowing on the agrophysical properties of chernozems. The combination of rational tillage with the application of organic fertilizers and other agricultural activities contributes to the restoration of the fertility of chernozems, which can often be observed in variety plots.
This shows that the effect of cultivation on soil properties can be very different depending on its intensity, soil and climatic conditions, moisture regimes, cultivated vegetation, and the quantity and quality of fertilizers. However, due to the limited information currently available on the effect of tillage on soil properties, it is difficult or even impossible to make any predictions about this effect in each specific case. It is necessary to expand research in this direction and, on their basis, develop a theory of tillage, which is now in an unsatisfactory state.
The observation system should include many indicators of the physical, chemical and biological state of soils. If the possibilities of observers are limited, then it is necessary first of all to evaluate the most important indicators for the studied soils, which significantly affect their fertility. For example, on saline soils or those with a risk of salinization, it is necessary first of all to monitor the salt regime, on acidic soils - for acidity and humus content, on chernozems and meadow soils, on irrigated lands - for their structural state, etc. When conducting extensive research it is imperative to monitor the humus state of soils, since, firstly, it is one of the main factors determining soil fertility, and secondly, many indicators of the humus state change relatively quickly with changes in soil formation conditions and are good indicators of these changes.
1The involvement of gray forest soil in agricultural production for 26 years leads to the formation of specific properties, which are due to the transformation of soil microaggregation. The activity of this process depends on the type of agrogenic load. Thus, the mechanical impact on gray forest soil as a result of annual moldboard plowing by 20–22 cm causes a change in the polydispersity coefficient and dispersion factor in the 30–40 cm layer. does not lead to the formation of a plow pan.
gray forest soil
basic processing techniques
agroecosystems
polydispersity coefficient
dispersion factor
plow pan
1. Zinchenko S.I., Zinchenko V.I. The development of agriculture from hoe farming to soil protection. – M.: Transit-X, 2006. – 136 p.
2. Zinchenko S.I. Fundamentals of chernozem processing. – M.: Transit-X, 2006. – 248 p.
3. Scientific foundations of farming systems in the Vladimir region / under the general. ed. I.V. Biryukova, S.I. Zinchenko. - Vladimir: VOOO VOI PU "Growth", 2010. - 308 p.
4. Sokolovsky A.N. Selected works. - Kyiv: Harvest, 1971. - S. 200-201.
The main soil-cultivating tool for cultivation in the Opol zone is a moldboard plow. Moldboard plowing contributes to the removal of silt particles to deeper horizons and downward movement of the lower boundary of the podzolic and transitional horizon. With an increase in the depth of plowing, the removal of silt increases, and the lower boundary of these horizons sinks deeper. There is a depletion of the arable layer with the most active physicochemically silty and colloidal particles. The use of this tool leads to the formation of a compacted layer below the processing depth - a plow pan.
The purpose of this work was to identify the most optimal reception of the main processing, which reduces the formation of the plow pan; to determine the influence of anthropogenic impact on the value of the polydispersity coefficient and the dispersity factor of the gray forest soil of agrocenoses.
Materials and methods of research
The studies were carried out on gray forest medium loamy soil in a stationary experiment (GNU Vladimir Research Institute of Agriculture, Suzdal), founded in 1986. The formation of agroecosystems took place over 26 years in a crop rotation: oats with oversowing of clover-clover of the 1st year - clover of the 2nd year - winter rye-spring wheat-barley. The arable layer has the following agrochemical parameters: humus content 2.5%, mobile forms P2O5 and K2O - 15 and 13.8 mg/100 g of soil, respectively, pH salt 5.8.
The objects of the study were the following options: annual flat-cut processing to a depth of 6-8 cm; annual moldboard plowing to a depth of 20-22 cm; periodic longline plowing to a depth of 28-30 cm for winter rye with its alternation with flat-cut tillage to a depth of 6-8 cm for other crops of the crop rotation. Mineral fertilizers were applied in the background at doses recommended for crop rotation (NPK 40-60 kg/ha a.i.). The soil of the fallow, which had not been exposed to tillage tools for more than 30 years, was used as a control.
Research results and discussion
The determination of the granulometric composition of gray forest soil was carried out on the studied backgrounds after the cultivation of clover, before processing for winter rye. The polydispersity coefficient (δ, %) was calculated for the depth of soil sampling (Fig. 1). This indicator is characterized by the ratio of soil fractions< 0,001 мм к фракциям >0.01 mm.
b 
G
Rice. Fig. 1. Change in the polydispersity coefficient along the soil profile: a - fallow; b - annual shallow non-moldboard processing by 6-8 cm; c - annual moldboard plowing by 20-22 cm; d - periodic longline plowing by 28-30 cm
For the fallow soil, the polydispersity coefficient increases from 11% in the 0-10 cm layer to 43.1% at a depth of one meter. In the variant with an annual fine tillage of 6–8 cm, a similar smooth distribution along the profile of the polydispersity coefficient is observed (Fig. 1a,b).
Excessively loose structure, formed after moldboard plowing to 20-22 cm and periodic long-line plowing to a depth of 28-30 cm, causes the silt fraction of the soil to be washed out into the lower uncultivated soil layers. Here, soil pores are clogged with silt particles, which leads to the formation of a plow pan under the cultivated soil layer. The activation of these processes can lead to a decrease in the absorption of atmospheric precipitation and melt water in the spring, their stagnation on the surface or in the arable layer of the soil.
As a result, in the variant with annual moldboard plowing at a depth of 30–40 cm, that is, under the plow pan, the minimum value of the polydispersity coefficient is observed (Fig. 1c). In the variant with periodic longline plowing, the minimum value of this indicator is also noted below the plow pan - at a depth of 40-60 cm.
The decrease in the polydispersity coefficient in these options shows that a more coarsely dispersed soil layer is formed under the plow pan as a result of the concentration of the fine fraction in the plow pan layer.
Granulometric and microaggregate analyzes make it possible to determine the indicators of microaggregation or the potential ability of gray forest soil to microaggregate. One of such indicators characterizing the strength of the soil structure was proposed by N.A. Kachinsky - soil dispersity factor (Kc) (Fig. 2).
a 
in
b 
G
Rice. Fig. 2. Change in the dispersity factor along the soil profile: a - fallow; b - annual shallow non-moldboard processing by 6-8 cm; c - annual moldboard plowing by 20-22 cm; d - periodic longline plowing by 28-30 cm
It is determined by the ratio of the silt content in microaggregate analysis to the silt content in granulometric analysis. The higher the dispersion factor (Kk, %), the less stable the soil microstructure.
The results of the research showed that in the soil where annual non-moldboard tillage was carried out to a depth of 6-8 cm and in the fallow area, the minimum strength of the structure is observed in a layer of 0-10 cm. At other depths (up to one meter), Kk practically does not change, and this indicates about the formation of a microstructure with high strength (Fig. 2a, b). On variants with annual moldboard plowing, as well as with periodic longline plowing, a strong microstructure is formed in the 0-30 cm layer, however, the effect of the plow pan is manifested at depths of 30-40 and 40-60 cm (Fig. 2c, d). In this region of the soil profile, the lowest strength of the microstructure is observed. This may contribute to the development of intensive restoration processes in the underlying root profile of the gray forest soil.
The manifestation of recovery processes will lead to a deterioration in the physical and chemical properties of the soil and can adversely affect the development of the root system of cultivated crops, reduce the productivity of the agroecosystem.
Conclusion
Thus, the involvement of gray forest soils in agricultural production leads to the formation of specific properties of the agroecosystem, which are due to the transformation of soil microaggregation.
The activity of this process depends on the type of anthropogenic impact. Annual non-moldboard tillage of gray forest soil to a depth of 6-8 cm forms a microaggregate composition similar to that of a fallow site. Agrogenic impact on the soil as a result of annual moldboard plowing to a depth of 20-22 cm causes the formation of a plow pan, which leads to a change in soil microaggregation in a layer of 30-40 cm and the possibility of intense restoration processes in the underlying root layers of gray forest soil.
Bibliographic link
Zinchenko S.I., Mazirov M.A., Zinchenko V.S. ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCE OF BASIC TREATMENT METHODS ON THE ELEMENTS OF THE MECHANICAL COMPOSITION OF GRAY FOREST SOIL // Uspekhi modern natural science. - 2013. - No. 2. - P. 47-50;URL: http://natural-sciences.ru/ru/article/view?id=31362 (date of access: 02/01/2020). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"
All technological operations are carried out by carrying out appropriate methods of mechanical tillage. Reception is a single impact on the soil by the working bodies of machines or tools. Methods of mechanical tillage are divided into two groups: basic and surface tillage.
Under the methods of the main processing is understood the mechanical impact on the soil by the working bodies of tillage machines and implements to the entire depth of the arable layer or deeper when it is deepened, but not less than 18-20 cm, in order to give the soil a finely cloddy state with a favorable structure.
Methods of basic tillage are the most energy-intensive, but at the same time with their help many problems are solved. Through the methods of basic cultivation, when deepening the arable layer, prerequisites are created for a further increase in its power and soil cultivation.
According to the founder of agricultural mechanics, academician V.P. Goryachkin, plowing, as the most common method of basic tillage, is the most important, longest, most expensive and hardest work. Up to 40% of energy and 25% of labor costs are spent on its implementation.
Currently, the following methods of basic tillage are common:
a) cultural plowing (plows with skimmers);
b) processing with tools of special designs (longline plows, Maltsev's plow, subsoilers, cultivators);
c) processing by a milling machine;
d) processing with disc plows, the formation of slots with slot cutters by 35-50 cm and others.
Under methods of surface tillage is understood as a single mechanical impact on it by the working bodies of tillage machines and implements to a depth of 12-14 cm.
Surface treatments include: hulling with shaft and disk (tools) cultivators; cultivation with undercutting and loosening working bodies, including rod cultivators and flat cutters; hilling kami; harrowing with various types of boron with different shapes of working bodies; looping with loop-drawers, loop-boron; rolling with various types of rollers with different shapes of the working surface; smallness; craft rollers, furrows, holes, beds and ridges.
Soil cultivation is the most important agrotechnical measure that helps to increase the yield of cultivated plants. As a result of tillage,
Destruction of weeds, water, air, nutrient and thermal regimes are created for plant roots, as well as for soil microorganisms.
The most important methods of basic tillage are plowing, moldboardless (including flat-cutting) tillage and milling.
Plowing- This is the main method of tillage. In this case, the soil layer is turned and loosened to a depth of 20-25 cm. Usually, plowing is carried out with a plow with a skimmer. The skimmer is able to cut only the surface layer of soil about 10-12 cm thick.
Non-moldboard processing is carried out by a plow without turning the soil layer. The depth of plowing reaches 30-40 cm.
Usually this method is used in arid areas prone to wind erosion.
Flat-cut tillage is carried out with the help of special flat-cutters, while a significant part of the stubble remains intact (stubble - cut stems of cereals left on the vine after harvest). In winter, stubble traps snow, reduces wind speed in the surface layer, and thereby protects the soil from blowing out and increases its reserves of productive moisture.
Milling- tillage with the use of rotating cutters to a depth of 20 cm, which allows you to thoroughly mix and grind both the upper fertile soil layer and deeper useless layers.
It is usually used on podzolic and gray forest soils for their more intensive cultivation.
There are also methods of surface tillage: peeling, cultivation, harrowing and rolling.
Peeling the soil is carried out to a depth of 6-16 cm, while cutting the stubble and weeds, as well as crumbling and partially wrapping the soil. Sometimes plowing is used on already plowed areas in order to preserve moisture. For peeling, share or disc cultivators are used.
cultivation- this is loosening the soil to a depth of 5 to 10 cm without wrapping the top layer. With the help of cultivation, weeds are cut, tilled crops are cultivated, and the soil is also prepared for sowing. Cultivation is carried out using cultivators or hillers.
Harrowing- loosening the soil with harrows of the structure to a depth of 2 to 8 cm. Harrowing is used to cultivate the soil after rains or winters in order to mix and level the soil surface with partial destruction of weeds.
rolling- a method of soil compaction, for example, after plowing carried out in dry weather. Rolling allows you to break up lumpy parts of the soil. For this, various rollers are used.
The combination of various techniques and methods of tillage creates a system of tillage for spring and winter crops.
There are basic (autumn), spring pre-sowing and post-sowing tillage. Autumn processing is carried out in the fall after harvesting and autumn stubble stubble.
Pairs are of great importance in the tillage system for winter crops.
There are clean couples and busy couples. Pure pairs are in a loosened form and are not occupied by any plants. They play an important role in the accumulation of moisture and in the creation of sustainable agriculture in dry areas. On busy fallows, crops are grown for some time, which grow quickly and empty the field early. Fallow-occupying crops are harvested early (for example, early potatoes, sunflowers or corn for green fodder), after which the soil is prepared for sowing a winter crop.
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Mechanical tillage, in contrast to the cultivation of fields or crops, is understood as the impact on it by the working bodies of tillage machines and implements at one or another depth in order to optimize the soil conditions of plant life.
Mechanical tillage along with crop rotations and fertilizers is the most important link intensive farming systems.
Currently, soil protection methods of tillage are widely used and anti-erosion measures are being taken, measures are being taken to increase soil fertility and introduce intensive technologies for cultivating agricultural crops.
Under the influence of rational mechanical processing, the agronomic properties of the soil change, the water-air, thermal and nutritional regimes improve, weeds are destroyed and crop yields increase.
Unlike, for example, fertilizing or irrigating fields, mechanical cultivation does not in itself add any substance or energy to the soil. However, it changes the ratio of the volumes of solid, liquid and gaseous phases in the soil system and affects physical, chemical, physicochemical and biological processes, accelerating or slowing down the rate of synthesis and destruction of organic matter. Mechanical processing plays an important role in creating favorable agrophysical conditions for soil fertility, being one of the most important ways to control weeds, pests and diseases of crops.
To ensure optimal soil conditions and obtain stable and high yields, the following tasks are solved by tillage:
1) giving the soil at a certain depth a finely cloddy state with a favorable structure in order to ensure good water-air, thermal and nutritional regimes;
2) strengthening the circulation of nutrients by extracting them from deeper horizons into the arable layer zone, as well as activating useful microbiological processes in the soil;
3) destruction of weeds, pathogens and pests;
4) incorporation of fertilizers and plant residues to the required depth or leaving stubble on the soil surface;
5) prevention of erosion processes and related losses of water and nutrients;
6) deprivation of vitality of perennial vegetation during the processing of virgin and fallow lands, as well as fields occupied by sown perennial grasses;
7) imparting the necessary properties and condition to the upper soil layer for planting the sown seeds to a given depth;
8) creating conditions for lowering salt horizons and preventing the rise in groundwater levels.
As a result of processing, the necessary ratio of the volumes of capillary and non-capillary gaps between solid soil elements is created. The water-air, thermal and nutrient regimes of the soil depend on this.
Soil cultivation requires high energy costs. Therefore, its improvement in relation to zonal features and the requirements of various cultures is the primary task of agriculture.
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Culture Technological processes (operations) in tillage
Soil tillage tasks are performed using the following technological processes or operations:
1. loosening and crumbling;
2. wrapping;
3. mixing;
4. seal;
5. alignment;
6. pruning;
7. profiling, that is, giving the soil surface an extremely important shape.
Soil loosening is a technological operation that ensures a change in the relative position of soil units with an increase in pore volume, that is, giving them such a position when they are less tightly adjacent to each other. As a result, soil porosity increases and its density decreases. When loosening the soil, its crumbling also occurs.
Loosening is deep, normal, shallow and superficial. According to the classification existing in the country, tillage to a depth of 0.08 m is considered superficial, from 0.08 to 0.16 m - shallow, 0.16 ... 0.24 m - normal and more than 0.24 m - deep. AT industrial practice for field crops, the maximum depth of tillage is 0.25 ... 0.30 m, for reclamation cultivation of solonetzic soils and plantation plowing for gardens and forest plantations - up to 0.50 ... 0.60 m.
Why is periodic deep loosening extremely important?
1. As a result of it, a deep cultivated, that is, improved with the help of fertilizers and processing, soil layer is created. A number of scientists have proven that the larger the amount of soil used by plants, the higher their yield (Table 1).
Table 1
The influence of soil volume on the yield of oats (according to K. K. Gedroits)
| Mass of soil in a vessel, kg | Oat yield, g/vessel |
| 4,6 | 19,8 |
| 10,1 | 47,2 |
| 13,2 | 65,8 |
And just in the deep cultivated soil layer, plants develop a powerful root system that covers a large volume of soil, extracting more moisture and nutrients from there (Table 2).
table 2
Mass and distribution of the root system of barley along the soil profile,% (Uchkhoz VGSHA "Gornaya Polyana", 1979 ... 1983)
2. With deep loosening, the soil acquires a favorable structure and composition, due to which the water, air-thermal and nutritional regimes improve. The fact is that under the influence of gravity, precipitation, destruction of the structure, passages through the field of agricultural machinery, the soil is compacted, caked, acquiring a hexagonal structure. Soil units closely adjoin each other, porosity decreases, water and air penetrate the soil worse, useful aerobic microbiological processes freeze. Loosening tools loosen the soil, it acquires a loose cubic structure, porosity increases, aerobic microbiological processes increase and more nutrients accumulate, plant roots develop better. Loose soil has greater water permeability and moisture capacity (Fig. 1).
So, heavy loamy light chestnut soil after loosening has a density of about 0.9 t/m3, and by harvesting it can be compacted up to 1.4…1.5 t/m3.
The main methods of tillage
The optimal density for plants is in the range of 1.1…1.3 t/m3. Loosening the soil and allows you to maintain this optimum (Fig. 2).
3. Deep processing is of great phytosanitary importance, as it helps to suppress weeds, pests and diseases of crops, and enhances the decomposition of toxic substances.
4. Deep cultivation is of great importance on slopes, as it reduces the surface runoff of precipitation, which is better absorbed into loose soil, and thereby protects the soil from water erosion.
The question arises - how many times, that is, how often do you need to loosen the soil deep? This is far from an idle question, since each centimeter of depth increases the energy consumption of tillage by 5 ... 7%.
What determines the depth of tillage?
1. The depth and frequency of loosening depend on the soil and climatic conditions that determine the rate of soil subsidence. The faster and more compacted the soil, the deeper and more often it needs to be worked. In humid areas, under the influence of precipitation, the soil settles faster, in arid areas - more slowly. Structural soils compact less than structureless ones. For this reason, according to many authors (D.I. Burov, P.K. Ivanov, V.I. Rumyantsev, etc.), in the Volga region, a favorable composition and structure on chernozem structural soils after loosening persists for 3 ... 4 years, on poorly structured chestnut - 2 ... 3 years.
2. From weediness and increases on soils heavily infested with perennial weeds.
3. From the biological characteristics of cultivated crops and their predecessors.
4. From the applied fertilizer system.
Today it has been established that, taking into account the positive aftereffect of deep loosening, tillage in crop rotation should be at different depths and consist of periodic deep and less deep tillage (Tables 3, 4).
Table 3
Methods of mechanical tillage
A technique is called a single impact on the soil by the working bodies of tillage machines and implements in order to perform one or more operations (GOST 16265 - 89).
Methods of basic tillage
Under the main processing understand the first most deep tillage by plowing.
Plowing are performed with plows with blades of various designs, which determines the dissimilarity of technological operations in terms of composition and quality of execution. Plows with screw blades wrap the soil layer well, but crumble it poorly; on the contrary, plows with a cylindrical moldboard surface crumble the soil layer well, but wrap it poorly.
If during the operation of the plow the soil layer is completely turned around (by 180 °), then this is plowing with a layer turnover. With incomplete overturning of the soil layer and its oblique setting (by 135 °) on the edge, the treatment is called plowing with the uplift of the layer.
However, the best wrapping and crumbling of the soil layer, especially fields freed from perennial grasses, is achieved when plowing with a plow with a cultural dump and a skimmer installed in front of it. The skimmer removes the top layer of soil 8–10 cm thick, containing stubble, plant residues, harmful insects and phytopathogenic microorganisms, seeds and organs of vegetative renewal of weeds, on 2/3 of the main body’s working width, and dumps it to the bottom of the furrow.
In order to cover and close up the top layer of soil well, the main body should work at least 10-12 cm deeper than the skimmer. It lifts this lower layer, which is well structured and relatively free from harmful organisms, to the dump, wraps it, crumbles it and completely sprinkles it previously discarded top layer.
Such plowing with a plow with a cultivated moldboard and with a skimmer to a depth of at least 20-22 cm is called cultural, or classical, plowing (according to V. R. Williams). It is widely used as an autumn (autumn) plowing in the Non-Chernozem and other areas in the fields where there is no real danger of erosion processes.
When plowing with moldboard plows, the soil layer falls off to the right. Therefore, if the plowing of each paddock into which the field is divided starts from the edges, then a detachable furrow is formed in the middle of the paddock, and this method is called waddle plowing. If plowing is started from the middle of the paddock, a stall ridge is formed there, and this method is called stall plowing.
For plowing, various moldboard plows are used (PLN-5-35, PTK-9-35, PVN-3-35, etc.). When using reversible plows, the field is not divided into paddocks and neither breaking furrows nor breaking ridges are formed on it. Such plowing is called smooth.
In areas subject to wind erosion, in order to preserve stubble and other plant residues on the surface, which protect the soil from blowing and accumulate a large amount of moisture in the form of snow, which is so necessary in arid steppe regions, soil loosening is carried out without wrapping, which is called subsurface plowing.
Such plowing to a depth of 27 - 30 cm or more, developed in the early 50s of the XX century. Academician T. S. Maltsev, are widely used in Western and Eastern Siberia and the European part of Russia using previously non-moldboard plows, and later flat cutters and deep looseners of various designs (KPP-2.2; KPG-2-150; KPG-250; GUN- 4, Paraplau et al.).
In some cases, non-moldboard plowing is carried out in spring or even autumn to loosen compacted soil in order to enhance aeration and microbiological activity, free the arable layer from excess moisture, destroy the plow pan, and also in fields previously plowed with moldboard plows.
On fields with an uneven surface and containing a large amount of slightly decomposed plant residues (annual plowing in one direction, formation of tussocks, weed patches), milling provides good results as the main treatment.
During the operation of milling tools (FNB-0.9; FN-1.25; KFG-3.6, etc.), the soil intensively crumbles and mixes thoroughly to a depth of 10-20 cm, while creating a homogeneous arable or immediately only a sowing layer where crop seeds are sown at the same time.
Often, other operations are combined with the main tillage. So, loosening paws are installed behind each main body of the plow, which work 10–15 cm below the arable layer, contributing to better water resistance and aeration of the subarable horizons. To divert excess water from waterlogged fields, ordinary plows with a molehill are used, which below the main body at a depth of 35-40 cm form a drain 4-6 cm in diameter, which lasts 2-3 years on heavy loamy soils. On plowed fields, special mole worms (RK-1.2; MD-6, etc.) are used to form drains in the subsurface layer.
Methods of surface and shallow tillage
Soil cultivation to a depth of up to 8 cm (sowing layer) is called surface, and to a depth of 8-16 cm - shallow. The expediency of such treatments is determined either by the need to create the most favorable conditions for the seeds of crops placed in the sowing layer, or by the impossibility of deeper treatments for a number of agrotechnical and economic reasons.
Peeling stubble is carried out on fields freed from under grain crops that leave stubble on the field, or after harvesting other annual crops (millet, buckwheat, annual grasses, corn, etc.).
Harmful insects and microorganisms live and continue to multiply in the stubble and preserved plant residues, stubble crops (gray bristle, chicken millet, white gauze, upturned amaranth, etc.) and perennial weeds vegetate and bear fruit, and strongly sprayed and compacted with numerous passages of tillage and harvesters, the top layer very intensively loses moisture from the dry soil.
With the help of peeling, carried out immediately after harvesting the crop, usually to a depth of 6-8 cm, and in arid areas often with rolling in the aggregate, a number of important tasks are simultaneously solved: cutting weeds, it deprives pests of fresh organic matter as a source of food; planting weed seeds in a wetter layer of soil, provokes their germination; loosened topsoil as a natural mulch dramatically reduces the physical evaporation of moisture and allows the subsequent main plowing to be carried out two to three weeks later without compromising quality (while avoiding excessive tension in field work).
Peeling is usually carried out with disc cultivators to a depth of no more than 10 - 12 cm (LDG-5; LDG-10, etc.), as well as share cultivators (PPL-5-25; PPL-10-25), working to a depth of 12 - 17 cm, but sometimes disc harrows are also used. When peeling is delayed by 7-10 days, all of its advantages noted above are almost completely lost.
disking as a method, it performs the same technological operations (crushing, loosening, mixing, partial wrapping, cutting weeds) as stubble peeling with disc implements. However, it is more often used on plowed fields for cutting large blocks, filling wide furrows, leveling ridges and microestuaries, and before plowing for cutting and cutting dense sod of perennial seeded and meadow grasses (BDT-3.3; BDNT-3.5, etc. ), for grinding by cross disking (or peeling) the rhizomes of wheatgrass and the organs of vegetative renewal of other perennial weeds (field sow thistle, pig finger, etc.).
cultivation is intended for continuous (to a depth of 5-12 cm) or inter-row (up to 16 cm) tillage, in which crumbling, loosening, partial mixing of the soil and cutting of weeds and, above all, root offspring occurs no later than the phase of 3-4 leaves at rosettes of perennial weeds . It is especially necessary for continuous processing just before sowing the crop, in order to create a "dense bed" for the seeds of the crop, leveled under the loosened layer.
Being located on a dense bed, the seeds quickly swell, absorbing the soil moisture coming from below through the capillaries, and germinate together. Continuous cultivation is systematically carried out on fallow fields, but in arid regions it is combined with a light subsequent rolling (KPS-4, KPG-4). Most often, cultivators with lancet paws are used for these works.
For inter-row cultivation, both conventional cultivators (KRN-4.2; KRN-5.6) are used, which are equipped with a set of interchangeable working bodies (lancet shares, one-sided weeded shares, loosening chisel hillers, weeding harrows, etc.), and special cultivators for the care of crops of sugar beet, vegetable crops GUSMK-5.4B, KF-5.4, KOR-4.2.
In steppe erosion-prone areas, for continuous fallow tillage or pre-sowing soil preparation, a rod cultivator (KSh-3.6) is used, in which the working body is a tetrahedral horizontally located and rotating in the direction opposite to the direction of movement of the tool, thus bringing to the surface from a depth of 5 - 10 cm plant residues. For the same purpose, the KPE-3.8A anti-erosion cultivator with a similar rod device is also used, as well as various flat cutters (KPP-2.2; KPG-2-150; KPSh-9, etc.), which retain up to 80 - 95% of the stubble on the soil surface.
Basics of agronomy
Harrowing Soils are used in all tillage systems and various designs of harrows are used for this.
With the beginning of field work on plowed fields, the first-priority method is used - early spring harrowing ("covering moisture", "cover harrowing"), as well as transverse harrowing of well-wintered winter crops, usually performed during the period of physical ripeness of the soil with tine harrows with a rigid frame (BZTS- 1; BZSS-1; BP-0.6).
Heavy harrows loosen the soil up to 7-10 cm, and light ones - up to 5-8 cm. By loosening the top layer (2-4 cm) of the soil of the field that has begun to dry out, they create, as it were, a natural mulch layer. It covers the underlying and more dense layer saturated with capillary moisture.
As a result, the physical evaporation of soil moisture is reduced by 3-5 times. Sufficient moisture and fever provoke mass germination in the upper layer of weed seeds, which are completely destroyed by subsequent treatments.
To care for crops of row crops (potatoes, corn, sunflower, etc.) in the pre-emergence period in the phase of the "white thread" of young weeds, mounted mesh harrows (BSO-4; BS-2; BSN-4) are highly effective, the working depth of which can be adjusted within 3 - 8 cm and which, due to the independent suspension of each tooth, perfectly copy the soil surface (smooth or ridged surface).
When a soil crust is formed before and at the time of emergence of seedlings, the use of tooth and net harrows is dangerous for weak seedlings: when moving across the field, the harrows, although they destroy the crust, but at the same time displace it, cutting off the seedling or its root system. In such a situation, when caring for crops, the BIG-3 needle harrow is indispensable. When rotating, its needle-shaped disks destroy the soil crust with vertical injections and do not displace it, without damaging the seedlings of crops at all. The BIG-3 harrow and its modifications are an ideal tool for early spring harrowing and pre-sowing preparation of fields on a stubble background in areas prone to wind erosion.
rolling in addition to compacting the soil, it partially loosens it, crushing wet large lumps, levels the surface, improves the contact of seeds with the soil and accelerates their germination, which is also explained by the fact that during compaction, the soil heats up faster and its temperature rises by 1.5 - 2 ° C. Rolling is carried out with various rollers, carrying it out no later than on the 2nd - 3rd day after sowing the crop and in case of danger of severe drying of the seed layer due to its excessive friability.
Grinding or drawing, used for leveling the surface loosening of the soil (by 3 - 5 cm). In spring, its fashion is carried out one or two days earlier than early spring harrowed, and especially on soils of light texture. On heavy soils, a soil crust may form due to the "smearing" of the still waterlogged soil. The dragging is carried out, but more often with a trail harrow (ShchB-2.5), which has a row of teeth with an adjustable angle of inclination on the front bar.
Agrotechnical requirements for tillage
Soil cultivation.
Rack housing PNYaS 08.000 for plow PNYa 4-42, PNB 4-40
Price: 1752 UAH
Rack housing PNYaS 08.000 for plow PNYa 4-42, PNB 4-40
Rack PNYaS 08.000 - used on plows of the PNB 4-40, 5-40 and PNYa 4-42, 6-42 series. It is used to fasten the body to the frame. It is attached to the plow frame with a strap and a bracket.
It is made from a circle with a diameter = 75 mm.
Rack height - 850 mm.
Weight - 26 kg.
The heat treatment process is underway.
A wide range of manufactured spare parts for plows of 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 hulls, both according to the drawings of a domestic manufacturer, and modernized plows with semi-screw blades and on high round racks.
We also produce spare parts for cultivators KPS, KRN, KPE; for harrows BDVP (Krasnyanka), BDT, DMT (Demetra), BDP, Solokha, BDN.
All plows are certified, have guarantee period.
We ship via New Mail, Ying Time, Delivery.
Price: 1752 UAH
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tillage
1. Soil cultivation as a fertility factor. Purpose, tasks and methods of tillage
The value of the soil as the main means of agricultural production is determined by its main property - fertility.
Fertility is understood as the ability of the soil to satisfy the need of plants for nutrients, water, air and heat for normal growth and development.
The development of soils and soil cover, as well as the formation of their fertility, is closely connected with a specific combination of natural factors of soil formation and the diverse influence of human society, with the development of its productive forces, economic and social conditions.
A special role in soil formation belongs to living organisms, primarily green plants and microorganisms. Due to their influence, the most important processes of transformation of rock into soil and the formation of its fertility are carried out: the concentration of elements of ash and nitrogen nutrition of plants, the synthesis and destruction of organic matter, the interaction of the vital products of plants and microorganisms with mineral compounds of the rock, etc. in the knowledge of the biological essence of soil formation, V.R. Williams and V.I. Vernadsky.
Being in a state of continuous exchange of matter and energy with the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, the soil cover acts as an indispensable condition for maintaining the balance that has developed on Earth between all its spheres, which is so necessary for the development and existence of life on our planet in all its diverse forms.
At the same time, having the property of fertility, the soil acts as the main means of production in agriculture. Using the soil as a means of production, a person significantly changes soil formation, influencing both directly the property of the soil, its regimes and fertility, and the natural factors that determine soil formation. Planting and deforestation, cultivation of agricultural crops change the appearance of natural vegetation; drainage and irrigation change the humidification regime, etc. no less sharp impacts on the soil are caused by the methods of its processing, the use of fertilizers and means of chemical reclamation (liming, gypsum).
Consequently, the soil is not only the subject of human labor, but to a certain extent, the product of this labor. Thus, soil science studies the soil as a special natural body, as a means of production, as an object of application and accumulation of human labor, and also, to a certain extent, as a product of this labor.
As the main means of production in agriculture, the soil is characterized by the following important features: irreplaceable, limited, non-movable and fertile. These features emphasize the need for an exceptionally careful attitude to soil resources and constant concern for improving soil fertility.
Types of soil fertility:
There are the following types of fertility: natural (natural), artificial, potential, effective and economic.
Natural (natural) fertility is the fertility that the soil (landscape) has in its natural state. It is characterized by the productivity of natural phytocenoses.
Artificial fertility (natural-anthropogenic, according to V.D. Mukha) is the fertility that the soil (agricultural landscape) has as a result of economic activity person. In many respects, it inherits the natural. In its pure form - typical for greenhouse soils, reclaimed (bulk) soils.
The soil has certain reserves of nutrients (reserve fund), which are realized when creating a crop of plants through its partial consumption (exchange fund). From this idea follows the concept of potential fertility.
Potential fertility - the ability of soils (landscapes and agricultural landscapes) to provide a certain crop or productivity of natural cenoses. This ability is not always realized, which may be due to weather conditions, economic activity. The potential fertility is characterized by the composition, properties and regimes of soils. For example, chernozem soils have high potential fertility, and podzolic soils have low potential, but in dry years crop yields on chernozems may be lower than on podzolic soils.
Effective fertility is a part of the potential, realized in the crop yield under certain climatic (weather) and agrotechnical conditions. Effective fertility is measured by yield and depends both on the properties of soils, landscape, and on human economic activity, the type and variety of crops grown.
Economic fertility is the effective fertility measured in economic indicators, taking into account the cost of the crop and the cost of obtaining it.
Factors limiting soil fertility:
The factors limiting soil fertility include indicators of the composition, properties and regimes of soils that reduce the yield of cultivated plants and the bioproductivity of natural phytocenoses. In the first approximation, they can be designated as deviations from optimal performance. The degree of deviation characterizes the level of the limiting factor and the degree of yield reduction. Theoretical basis studies of factors limiting soil fertility are the laws of the limiting factor and the cumulative action and the optimal combination of plant life factors. It is necessary to distinguish between global limiting factors characteristic of soils of all natural zones, intrazonal (regional), characteristic of certain zones and regions, and local, characteristic of small territories.
The general planetary ones include: insufficient supply of nutrients, increased density, unsatisfactory structure, low content of easily decomposable organic matter.
To intrazonal (regional) - increased acidity, increased alkalinity, lack and excess of moisture, soil erosion and deflation, stoniness, salinity, alkalinity, etc.
Local factors limiting soil fertility include local contamination of soils with radionuclides and heavy metals, oil products, disturbance of the soil cover by mine workings, etc.
For a number of soil properties and regimes, critical levels of indicators have been determined, at which other agronomically important soil properties and regimes deteriorate sharply and the plant yield or its quality sharply decreases.
In soils with low natural fertility, cultivated, cultivated and cultural varieties are distinguished. Developed soils are formed in conditions of low agricultural technology, with irregular application of low doses of organic and mineral fertilizers. Cultivated and cultivated - are formed with high agricultural technology, regular application of organic and mineral fertilizers and carrying out the necessary reclamation measures (drainage, irrigation, liming, the introduction of high doses of peat, sanding clay soils, claying - sandy, etc.). as a result of measures aimed at eliminating limiting factors, the fertility of cultivated soils is significantly higher compared to developed analogues.
The process opposite to cultivation is proposed to be called ploughing. Plowing is a decrease in the level of fertility of arable soils, deterioration of agronomic properties (decrease in humus content, destructuring, overconsolidation, soil fatigue) as a result of their use at a low level of humus sources (organic fertilizers and post-harvest residues) for a number of years. Currently, scientific research is underway to quantify the degree of ploughing. Plowed can be both developed and cultivated soils to varying degrees. In plowed soils, soil fatigue and phytotoxicity of soils are most often manifested, sharply reducing plant yield. Soil fatigue is a multifactorial phenomenon that manifests itself in agrocenoses, especially in monoculture conditions. A.M. Grodzinsky, V.T. Lobkov distinguish the following, the most significant causes of soil fatigue:
unilateral removal of nutrients, violation of the balanced nutrition of plants;
changes in the physical and chemical properties of soils, pH shift;
deterioration of the structure and water-physical properties of soils;
violation of the biological regime, the development of pathogenic microflora (fungi Fusarium, Penicillium, etc., Pseudomonas bacteria, some actinomycetes);
accumulation of phytotoxic substances (colins) - derivatives of phenols, quinones and naphthyzine, which cause soil toxicity;
reproduction of pests and malicious weeds.
Soil fatigue is considered as a result of violation of the ecological balance in the soil-plant system due to the unilateral impact of cultivated plants on the soil.
The main tasks of tillage:
giving the arable and seed layer of the soil the best structure, including due to the improvement of its agrophysical properties;
maintenance of favorable water, air and thermal regimes of soils;
regulation of the nutritional regime for plants both by targeted placement of fertilizers in the soil and by regulation of the intensity of microbiological processes;
destruction of harmful organisms and reduction of their abundance in the arable layer to a safe threshold of harmfulness;
incorporation into the soil at the optimal depth of the sod of grasses, plant residues, fertilizers, ameliorants and other agronomically valuable materials;
prevention of development and manifestation of erosion processes in the soil;
creation of conditions for increasing the capacity and cultivation of the arable layer of soil;
creation of microrelief forms, providing high-quality performance of all field work from sowing to the end of crop harvesting in optimal agrotechnical terms.
The purpose of processing is to improve the agrophysical properties of the soil and the accumulation of mineral nutrients in it due to the destruction of organic matter.
Methods of tillage: 1). Main, 2). Pre-sowing, 3). Post-sowing.
The main tillage is the deepest tillage for a particular crop after harvesting the predecessor.
Basic processing steps:
if in autumn - chill, autumn plowing
if in spring - spring plowing
For better crumbling, wrapping and loosening, skimmers are used, which cut off the top layer of 10-12 cm and drop it to the bottom of the furrow; at the same time, the stubble is better closed up, the layer is turned around.
Plowing with skimmers is called cultural.
. Techniques and methods of basic tillage
Basic tillage is the first deeper tillage after harvesting the previous crop. In various soil and climatic zones, it is carried out with different tools. On soils where water erosion does not occur, in most cases it will be plowing with a plow with a skimmer, and in case of wind erosion, flat-cutting.
Plowing. This is a method of basic tillage, with the help of which wrapping, mixing and loosening of the cultivated soil layer takes place. Plowing is carried out in autumn in the system of autumn tillage (fallow) or sometimes in spring - spring plowing.
The quality of plowing the soil with a plow largely depends on the shape of the moldboard. They are screw, cylindrical, semi-screw and cultural. The degree of wrapping, crumbling loosening depends on the shape of the blade. Plows with helical mouldboards turn the layer 180°, but crumble poorly. This method of plowing is called the turnover of the layer. Plowing with a rotation angle of 135 ° is called uplift.
Plows with cylindrical mouldboards do not wrap well, but they crumble well and mix the soil.
The semi-screw blade has a cylindrical front part of the blade, and a screw-like rear part. When a plow is working with such a moldboard, the layer immediately and steeply rises and is thrown towards the furrow. With this moldboard, good crumbling is achieved, but poor wrapping.
The cultural dump combines a cylindrical front part and a screw back part. With this blade, better crumbling and wrapping is achieved than with a cylindrical blade. There are other forms of dumps. Combined dumps occupy a middle position between cultural and semi-screw.
At present, our industry produces plows mainly with cultivated and combined forms of mouldboards. But the plows of these designs do not fully meet the requirements for the quality of plowing. This is due to the fact that the technological properties of the upper and lower parts of the arable layer are not the same. The upper part has a higher connectivity, as it has a large number of roots and is often drier than the lower one.
For better crumbling, wrapping and loosening, moldboard plows are equipped with skimmers, which are a reduced copy of the main body and are installed in front of it. When working, the skimmer cuts and dumps the upper part of the arable soil layer (10-12 cm) to the bottom of the furrow, and the lower part, less connected by roots, crumbles well on the plow blade and fills up the soil layer dropped by the skimmer. As a result of such plowing, better conditions are created for the decomposition of crop residues and more favorable conditions for the development of cultivated plants.
Such plowing is quite widespread as a method of basic tillage and is called cultural. When it is carried out, the creation of a finely lumpy structure of the arable layer is greatly facilitated, in which there is a higher total duty cycle with a favorable ratio between capillary and non-capillary duty cycles. During cultural plowing, plant residues are covered and more friendly weed shoots are provided. After such treatment, the surface of arable land becomes more even, without lumps.
Cultural plowing, improving the structure of the arable layer, creates more favorable conditions for the food, water and air regimes of the soil for plants. In this regard, plowing soil from under perennial grasses with a plow with skimmers provides an increase in grain yield compared to plowing without skimmers from 2 to 4 centners per 1 ha; flax seeds - from 1 to 2 and flax fiber - from 2 to 4 centners per 1 ha; the yield increase on soft lands is from 1 to 3 centners per 1 ha.
. Receptions and methods of surface tillage
Peeling. This is a method of tillage with disc and share tools, which provides loosening, crumbling and partial wrapping, mixing the soil and cutting weeds. It is carried out before sowing crops, during the processing of fallows. If peeling is carried out after harvesting crops, then it is called stubble peeling.
Cultivation. This is a method of tillage by a cultivator, which provides loosening, crumbling and partial mixing of the soil, as well as its leveling and complete cutting of weeds. It can be continuous (treatment of the entire surface of the field) and inter-row (treatment of row-spacing row crops). The processing depth can reach 14 cm. Cultivation improves the water-air regime of the soil, activates the activity of soil microorganisms, and provides conditions for the friendly germination of weeds.
Harrowing. This is a method of surface (up to 10 cm) tillage with harrows of various designs, which provides loosening, mixing, leveling the soil, as well as partial destruction of seedlings and weed shoots. Harrowing is used as a separate technique, as well as in combination with other techniques.
Rolling. This is a method of tillage with rollers, which provides compaction, crumbling of blocks and partial leveling of the soil surface. Rolling promotes planting of seeds to the required depth, better contact of seeds with the soil, their rapid swelling and germination. The main task of rolling is to retain moisture in the soil as fully as possible in dry conditions.
Rolling is applied before crop sowing, after sowing and without connection with crop sowing. For example, in fallow fields, this technique is carried out to reduce the overall porosity of the soil and retain moisture after cultivation, plowing, loosening, and peeling. Sod is also rolled after plowing for better decomposition, peat bogs during development. Rolling is most effective in dry conditions. On heavy soils, when waterlogged, rolling gives negative results. The wetter the soil, the stronger the compacting effect of the roller. The speed of movement of the units should be 7 ... 9 km / h.
. Minimum tillage
fertility soil plant
The minimum is understood as science-based tillage, which reduces energy and labor costs by reducing the number, depth and cultivated area of the field, as well as combining and performing several technological operations (loosening, soil compaction, fertilization, herbicides, sowing, etc.) in one working process.
A variation of minimum tillage is no-till (or direct seeding), which involves sowing into uncultivated soil, and herbicides are applied against weeds. Mulching, conservation and other treatments combine technologies of flat-cutting, chisel tillage of different intensity and depth with the preservation of more than 30% of stubble and plant residues on the field surface.
Vegetable mulch reduces evaporative moisture loss, keeps the soil from overheating and protects it from erosion. Therefore, minimal tillage is also considered soil-protective.
The need to minimize tillage is due to a decrease in energy and labor costs for its implementation. The intensification of agriculture provides for an increase in the power of tractors, the width of the implements, but at the same time their mass and pressure on the soil increase. The use of intensive cultivation in crop rotations with a predominance of annual plowing leads to the activation of the activity of microorganisms that accelerate the decomposition of humus. The increasing mechanical impact on the soil entails a number of negative phenomena. Firstly, mechanical tillage absorbs about 40% of energy and over 25% of labor costs in agriculture. Secondly, the increasing mechanical pressure on the soil, both due to the increase in the mass of movers and the frequency of movement of agates across the field, has sharply increased soil degradation: soil density and its resistance to cultivation have increased sharply, the humus content in the soil has decreased by 25 - 30 over the past 60 years. % and erosion processes intensified. Thirdly, although the mechanical impact on the soil over the past 20 years has increased by 3.5 times, crop yields from soil compaction have decreased by 12 - 30%. These and other negative phenomena have sharply increased the relevance of minimizing tillage in modern agriculture.
The main ways of such minimization are as follows:
reduction in the number of treatments due to their implementation in the optimal physical condition of the soil;
reducing the depth of tillage when using agrotechnically sound alternation of deep and surface methods;
combination of a number of technological operations in one pass of the unit;
reduction of the area of the treated surface due to the widespread use of pesticides in the rest of the area;
the use of propellers and tillage implements with a minimum specific pressure on the soil.
However, the implementation of these ways in the practice of agriculture is possible and observance of certain conditions:
formation of equilibrium soil density corresponding to the optimal density for crops (for cereals - 1.1-1 1.3, for tilled crops - 1.0-1.2);
maintaining the total soil porosity at a level of at least 50 -55% and aeration porosity of more than 15 -20%;
ensuring soil water permeability (at least 60 mm/h);
maintaining the field moisture capacity of the soil at a level of about 30-33%;
maintenance of water-stable aggregates of the macrostructure at a level not exceeding 40%;
the formation of the thickness of the arable layer is not less than 20 - 22 cm;
containment of the abundance of harmful organisms in agrophytocenosis at a level below the economic threshold of harmfulness.
To minimize tillage, both tools for loosening the entire arable layer and its surface processing, as well as combined tools and aggregates, are widely used.
The justification for minimizing tillage is also that well-structured chernozem, dark gray forest, chestnut, and light texture soils have agrophysical properties favorable for plant growth and do not require intensive mechanical processing. In addition, on these soils, with the widespread use of herbicides, it is possible to reduce the number of row loosening in row crops (potatoes, sugar beets, etc.).
Minimal tillage is used depending on the soil and climatic conditions, the biological characteristics of cultivated crops and the degree of contamination of crops. For example, on well-cultivated and weed-free soils in the tillage system for winter and spring crops, deep loosening can be replaced by surface tillage.
The disadvantage of methods for minimizing tillage is the deterioration of the phytosanitary state of the soil: increased infestation of crops, susceptibility of crops to diseases and pests. mi. At the same time, the decrease in the rate of humus mineralization worsens the supply of nitrogen to crops, especially after stubble predecessors, which requires additional application of nitrogen fertilizers.
5. Tillage system for spring crops
Depending on the predecessor, the tillage system for spring crops includes the tillage of fields from under annual non-till crops of solid sowing, tilled crops, sown perennial grasses, pure or rock fallows, tillage for intermediate crops and after their harvest. Processing systems for individual crops are combined into larger units - technological complexes or systems about tillage in crop rotation.
Autumn plowing of soil for spring crops is called autumn plowing, spring - spring plowing. This division is conditional, but it allows you to correctly navigate and skillfully use the entire set of tillage methods in relation to the characteristics of the biology and technology of cultivating a particular culm. tours and its predecessors, taking into account soil and climatic conditions. For tilled crops, it is supplemented by inter-row cultivation.
Row crops (sugar beet, potatoes, corn, etc.) have late harvesting dates. Under these crops, the soil is like right fork, process deeply. Taking into account the late harvesting of tilled crops, autumn plowing, for example, after potatoes and root crops, is replaced by share plowing by 10 - 12 cm (12 - 14 cm) or moldboard loosening. Compacted ruts (roads) formed on the field during harvesting are disked twice or plowed. On soils of heavy granulometric composition, as well as with severe clogging of the field with perennial weeds, plowing is carried out with plows with skimmers. After high-stemmed tilled crops (corn, sunflower, sorghum, etc.), coarse plant residues of stems remain on the field. For their grinding, the soil is preliminarily disked with a heavy disc harrow in 1-2 tracks or root-stalkers, milling cultivators are used. Then the field is plowed with plows with skimmers.
When re-cultivating corn on gray forest, black on terrestrial soils, the plowing depth is increased to 23-25 cm, which ensures better incorporation of plant residues. Plowing well destroys pests such as corn borer, sunflower shield beetle, etc.
On medium and well-cultivated soils of medium loamy granulometric composition, as well as on fields slightly littered with perennial weeds, plowing under spring crops is replaced by shallow tillage by 10-12 cm, using disc cultivators, heavy harrows, heavy steam cultivators, chisel cultivators.
On solonetz compacted soils and sloping lands, deeper flat-cutting or chisel loosening by 25-27 cm or plow-loosers with inclined racks of the paraplow type, as well as with racks, are used. Deep loosening increases the permeability of the soil and promotes the accumulation of water in the soil. Fields heavily littered with wild oat are pre-treated with needle tools to provoke its shoots.
The cultivation of soil for spring crops after perennial grasses is difficult because it is highly compacted and its upper layers are penetrated by strong turf, therefore, before plowing, it must be carefully cut by repeated disking. It is well incorporated into the soil during deep plowing with cultivated plows. mi. This should be especially taken into account when processing a layer of alfalfa, which is capable of growing back even after such plowing. For a good use of the layer of perennial grasses, early plowing of the sod is effective, especially in the northern regions.
. Soil tillage system for winter crops
The tillage system for winter crops - wheat, rye, barley - is determined by the fact that they should be sown at the optimal time of the summer-autumn period and they are sown mainly according to the best predecessors - on clean and busy fallows, after perennial grasses and cereals. legume crops. These predecessors make it possible to accumulate significant reserves of moisture and plant nutrients in the soil, clear the field of weeds and create a good seed bed for winter crops.
Winter crops (wheat, rye, barley) are sown at such times that their autumn vegetation lasts at least 45-55 days. Before the onset of frost, they should develop the root system well, spread out and accumulate a large amount of plastic substances necessary for overwintering. Therefore, the main tasks of processing are the creation of finely lumpy loose sowing layer with a leveled surface and a compacted seed bed, the accumulation of a sufficient amount of moisture and nutrients available to plants, as well as the cleansing of fields from weeds. Depending on zonal conditions, winter crops are placed into three groups of predecessors:
clean and rocker pairs;
busy and sideral couples;
non-steam predecessors.
The best among them is pure steam, especially in arid conditions.
The choice of fallows and predecessors is determined by the natural conditions of the economy, the availability of fertilizers, plant protection products.
Soil cultivation for winter crops is carried out taking into account the predecessor, the weediness of the field, the degree of erosion, the type of soil, its properties, weather and other conditions.
7. The concept of steam
In agriculture, fallow is a field left unsown for one summer. If the land remains in this state for more than one year, then it already bears the name of a deposit. This is the basis of two historical and still the most widespread systems of field cultivation in Russia: fallow, or shifting, and fallow, or three-field. The main purpose of allowing fallow in the fields is the possibility of especially carefully developing the land for the next sowing.
There are three main types of steam - clean, busy and half steam. Clean steam is divided into black, early and late (black and early can be rocker). Employed steam can be continuous, tilled and green manure.
While the soil is fallow, many very complex processes remain in it, the result of which is for the most part clear, but the very essence, with respect to many aspects, remains still little known. The soil consists of organic and inorganic substances. The changes that occur during steam affect both. Organic substances accumulated in the soil and introduced in the form of manure and old stubble begin to turn into humus, or "humify". The most essential feature of humus is to undergo constant changes both in the physical and chemical sense, with the release of mainly water, carbon dioxide and ammonia, that is, the most useful for decomposition and minerals. Carbon dioxide is credited with a very important influence in the process of weathering of rocks and the formation of soils from them. Under steam, the same process takes place, only in a smaller form. Mulder believes that the main goal of steam is the formation of a zeolite part in it, and direct experiments have shown that the more zeolites in the soil, the more fertile it is. Carbon dioxide, together with water and atmospheric oxygen, decomposes, albeit slowly, the inorganic compounds that make up the soil, such as: silicates, zeolites, phosphate and carbonic salts and alkaline earths, why, when the earth is fallow, under the influence of atmospheric phenomena As Liebig says, the known constituents of the soil are made more mobile and more acceptable to plant roots than they were before. To a much lesser extent, nitrogenous decay products of organic substances also take part in the above process. Humic acid salts and ammonia undoubtedly participate in the weathering process, and the latter, in addition, provides material for the formation of the most important nutrient - nitric acid. Steam, therefore, contributes to the "nitrification" of the soil. Undoubtedly, the participation of microorganisms. Thus, the processes that take place in the soil when it is fallow have a chemical and biological character. Steam also improves the physical properties of the soil, changing its structure and destroying the adhesion of its parts. Some of the clay and chernozem soils harden so in the middle of the summer, and in the spring they get so wet that they become almost inaccessible for cultivation, meanwhile, the same soils raised in the autumn, after the harvesting of the plants that were on them, and left in the layers for the winter, in the next spring and summer they can be easily worked with all sorts of tools. Thus, Steam destroys viscosity in heavy soils, due to a decrease in their moisture capacity and looseness, and the latter, in turn, leads to the provision of soil with moisture when there is a lack of precipitation. Soils with a solid unloosened surface quickly lose the moisture accumulated in them, through which they harden more and more; on the contrary, in soils constantly maintained in a loose state, this moisture is conserved. One of the clearest proofs of this is the recent times way of afforestation of our steppes. Formerly, saplings with watering were grown in nurseries, but at present neither nurseries nor the steppe planted from them is watered at all, and various deciduous species (oak, birch bark, maple, etc.) grow successfully, forming real forests, if only in youth, until the tops of the trees close, the ground under them is constantly loosened, which is why the native vegetation is destroyed, and by the evaporation it produces, it takes a lot from the soil, and therefore from the cultivated vegetation of moisture. The same order, that is, constant cleaning of any native vegetation and maintaining friability in the soil, is kept by gardeners in the south of Russia.
The fallow soil at a depth of 2-20 cm contains 23% moisture, and the soil covered with vegetation 12-16%. That favorable state that the soil reaches, being in a black fallow with proper cultivation, is called by German agronomists "ripeness", which, according to Leroux, is characterized by the following changes: 1) arable land becomes darker; 2) small lumps become loose; 3) the soil becomes different to the touch - it is elastic under the foot, and lighter in the hand than before; 4) the arable layer swells, rises, increases in volume; finally, 5) the field turns green, covered not only with weeds, but also with a special kind of plants. Small separate lumps, loose, however, like the whole field, are dressed in a special moss-like greenery, similar to what we see on pumps, on the log cabins of wells, on a half-rotted tree that never dries out, etc. Steam was an inseparable part of the dominant power in Russia at the end of the 19th century. tripartite system. In Western states this form of agriculture was also dominant, but from the end of the 18th century it gradually began to be replaced by other forms, finally and completely replacing fallow farming. The main inconvenience of the fallow, or three-field, system is that, with it, a third of the fields, so to speak, walk, that is, remain without sowing. However, fallow under certain soil and climatic conditions also has its negative sides - increased nitrogen mineralization, high compliance of the soil of the fallow area to water and wind erosion, and a number of others.
8. Tillage under melioration conditions
Land reclamation is a complex of organizational, economic and technical measures to improve hydrological, soil and agro-climatic conditions in order to increase the efficiency of the use of land and water resources to obtain high and sustainable crop yields.
Land reclamation - a radical improvement of land by carrying out hydrotechnical, cultural, chemical, anti-erosion, agroforestry, agrotechnical and other reclamation measures.
Reclaimed lands - lands, the insufficient fertility of which is improved through the implementation of reclamation measures; and lands on which reclamation activities have been carried out;
Land reclamation differs from conventional agrotechnical methods by a long and more intense impact on the objects of land reclamation. The main types of land reclamation: hydrotechnical, chemical, agroforestry, cultural works.
Types and types of melioration:
Depending on the nature of reclamation measures, the following types of land reclamation are distinguished:
hydromelioration;
agroforestry;
cultural and technical melioration;
chemical melioration.
Land hydromelioration consists in carrying out a complex of reclamation measures that provide a radical improvement of swampy, excessively moistened, arid, eroded, washed away and other lands, the state of which depends on the impact of water.
Land hydromelioration is aimed at regulating the water, air, thermal and nutrient regimes of soils on reclaimed lands through the implementation of measures to raise, supply, distribute and drain water using reclamation systems, as well as separately located hydraulic structures.
This type of land reclamation includes irrigation, drainage, anti-flood, anti-mudflow, anti-landslide and other types of land reclamation.
Irrigation (irrigation) is the supply of water to fields that lack moisture in order to create an optimal water regime for agricultural plants. Irrigation systems are built for irrigation.
Irrigation is an indispensable condition for the development of cotton growing, rice growing, vegetable growing and other branches of crop production.
Drainage - in agriculture - the removal of excess moisture from the root layer of the soil. For drainage, drainage and drainage-humidification systems are built.
Agroforestry land reclamation - a system of forestry measures to combat drought, dry winds, soil erosion, etc. Includes the creation of protective forest plantations, afforestation of sands, agrotechnical, hydrotechnical, organizational and economic, and other measures; consists in carrying out a complex of reclamation measures that provide a radical improvement of lands through the use of soil-protective, water-regulating and other properties of protective forest plantations.
This type of land reclamation includes the following types:
anti-erosion - protection of land from erosion by creating forest plantations on ravines, gullies, sands, river banks and other territories;
field protection - protection of lands from the impact of adverse phenomena of natural, anthropogenic and technogenic origin by creating protective forest plantations along the boundaries of agricultural land;
pasture protection - prevention of pasture land degradation by creating protective forest plantations.
Cultural and technical land reclamation consists in carrying out a complex of reclamation measures for the fundamental improvement of land.
This type of land reclamation is divided into the following types:
clearing of reclaimed lands from woody and herbaceous vegetation, tussocks, stumps and moss;
clearing of reclaimed lands from stones and other objects;
ameliorative treatment of solonetzes;
loosening, sanding, claying, earthing, planting and primary tillage;
carrying out other cultural and technical works.
Chemical land reclamation consists in carrying out a complex of reclamation measures to improve the chemical and physical properties of soils. Chemical land reclamation includes soil liming, soil phosphorization and soil gypsum.
Irrigation regimes should also take into account major changes in the irrigation and reclamation state of lands; changing water supply; improvement of the ameliorative state of lands; raising the level of agricultural technology; the emergence of more productive crop varieties; changing conditions of water use; improvement of irrigation technique for agricultural crops; growth of mechanization Agriculture etc. All this changes the demand for irrigation water and the conditions for its more efficient use.
Thus, there is a need to clarify and improve the existing irrigation regimes and develop them for land reclamation improved as a result of reconstruction, new and promising irrigation in various natural conditions.
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The granulometric composition determines many physical properties and the water-air regime of soils, as well as chemical, physico-chemical and biological properties.
A smaller particle diameter means a larger specific surface, and this, in turn, means higher cation exchange capacity, water-holding capacity, better aggregation, but lower strength. Heavy soils may have problems with air content, light soils with water regime.
Different fractions are usually represented by different minerals. Thus, quartz predominates in large ones, and kaolinite and montmorillonite predominate in small ones. The fractions differ in the ability to form organomineral compounds with humus.
Influence of granulometric composition on plant productivity
The productivity of plants on soils of different granulometric composition can vary significantly, which is explained by the difference in soil properties. The optimal granulometric composition depends on the conditions of moisture supply and cultivation technology. In arid conditions, low moisture content in light soils (sandy loam and sand) and weak capillary rise lead to a significant decrease in yield. Under conditions of good and excessive moisture, such soils are better aerated and plants feel better on them. A low supply of nutrients in light soils can be easily eliminated by applying fertilizers that are highly effective on such soils due to low buffering.
Ticket 6
1. Breeding variety
Selection (lat. selectio- choose) - the science of methods for creating new and improving existing breeds of animals, plant varieties, strains of microorganisms, with properties useful to humans. Breeding is also called the branch of agriculture engaged in the development of new varieties and hybrids of crops and animal breeds.
Variety (from fr. sorte) - a group of cultivated plants obtained as a result of selection within the framework of the lowest known botanical taxa and possessing a certain set of characteristics (useful or ornamental) that distinguishes this group of plants from other plants of the same species.
2. Saying proverb on seed production
This weather, you will eat bread year after year.
An eclipse occurs because an evil spirit hides the light of God and in the dark traps Christians in its nets.
Firewood and water will be on us.
Mold on rags - to the harvest of mushrooms.
The sun sets behind a cloud - to the rain; in red - to the bucket.
There is a lot of snow - and a lot of bread (and vice versa).
Rye turns green for two weeks, ears for two weeks, fades for two weeks, pours for two weeks, dries for two weeks
The cuckoo will choke on a wheat (rye) spikelet (i.e., it will stop cuckooing when the rye is eared, Novg.).
God will give rain, rye will also be born.
Will inflate the snow - the bread will arrive; water will spill - hay will be typed.
3. Essay topic:
Write using scientific agricultural terms Main types of cereals and cultivation technology
Types of cereals
At present, a sufficiently large number of species of cereals are known to science. The Cereal family is subdivided into more than 700 genera, in which 11 thousand plant species are combined. However, among the most widespread and world-famous types of cereals, one can distinguish perhaps such as wheat, rice, barley, rye, oats, corn, as well as simply, sugar cane and bamboo. All of the above listed types of cereal plants play an important role in the food industry of all world states without exception.
Spring barley cultivation technology
The system of basic and pre-sowing tillage.
After harvesting row crops (potatoes, corn), immediate plowing is necessary, but it is most often carried out only after 3-4 weeks, since all efforts during this period are rushed to harvesting and preserving the crop. If the predecessor is winter rye, then plowing is also carried out in the second half of autumn. Plowing is carried out to the depth of the arable layer with plows PGC-3-35, PGP-3-35, PGC-8-35. If possible, semi-fallow tillage is carried out with KPS-4 cultivators in an aggregate with BZSS-1.0 harrows. This concludes the main processing.
In the spring, as the physical maturation of the soil, moisture is covered with hitches of BZSS-1.0 harrows, cultivators KPS-4 in an aggregate with BZSS-1.0 harrows.
Characteristics of varieties used in the economy.
The future yield of barley largely depends on the choice of variety. Before choosing a variety, it is necessary to take into account the type of soil, its fertility, as well as the geographical location of the farm.
The farm is recommended to cultivate at least three zoned and promising varieties of barley - one from each ripeness group.
Crop care.
After sowing of spring barley, rolling is immediately carried out by the ZKKSH-6A machine. This procedure is mandatory in order for the barley seeds to be better fixed in the soil.
Mandatory method in the economy is pre-emergence and post-emergence harrowing with mesh harrows BSO-4, which contributes to a significant destruction of weed seedlings.
Harvest.
When the grain of barley reaches physical ripeness and a moisture content of approximately 20-22%, harvesting begins on the farm. Harvesting starts from the areas where the barley is most ripe. This is done in order to reduce losses associated with overripe grains and brittle stems.
Harvesting is carried out by combines SK-5 "Niva", Don-1500, and since 2001 by the combine "Lida".
Ticket 7
1. The concept of soil appraisal.
Soil appraisal is a specialized classification of soils according to their productivity, built on the objective features (properties) of the soils themselves, which are most important for the growth of agricultural crops. crops and those correlated with the average long-term yield (academician S. S. Sobolev).
Soil appraisal is a comparative assessment of soil quality in terms of fertility at comparable levels of agricultural technology and farming intensity (Prof. T. P. Magazinshchikov).
Soil appraisal is a comparative assessment of the quality of soils according to the main natural properties that are stable and significantly affect the yield of agricultural crops. crops grown in specific natural and climatic conditions (associate professor M. G. Stupen).
2. Terms for feed production
Feed production is a scientifically based system of organizational, economic and technological measures for the production, processing and storage of feed grown on arable land, hayfields and pastures.
Meadow fodder production is the production of fodder on sown and natural hayfields and pastures. Meadows used for harvesting hay are called hayfields, and those used for systematic grazing are called pastures. The area of natural fodder lands is 5 times larger than the area of fodder crops on arable land, however, due to low productivity specific gravity feed obtained from them, in the total balance of feed takes a little more than 30%.
3. Essay topic:
Write, using scientific agro terms, morphological and biological features and cultivation technology about perennial leguminous grasses
Unlike annual grasses, they can grow in one place for many years without annual overseeding; prevail in the composition of the herbage of meadows and pastures and occupy a prominent place in field herbage. Most perennial grasses belong to the family of cereals (timothy, foxtail, bonfire) and legumes (clover, alfalfa, sainfoin).
The biological characteristics of perennial grasses should be understood as the characteristics of their growth and development, the adaptations of plants that allow them to live and reproduce under certain conditions. external environment. Biological features include methods of nutrition, reproduction, types of shoot formation, the nature of development, aftertaste, life expectancy.
Knowledge of the biological characteristics of perennial grasses is of great fundamental importance for grassland farming. This knowledge is necessary for the competent solution of all issues of grassland management: improvement of fodder lands, creation of seeded hayfields and pastures, organization rational use, technologies for growing perennial grasses for fodder and seeds.
Perennial grass cultivation technology
cover crops
Perennial grasses in the first year of life develop slowly, can be heavily overgrown with weeds and produce low yields. Alfalfa on cultivated soils, with sufficient fertilization, can be sown without a cover, since by autumn they give a relatively high yield of green mass.
Soil cultivation. Tillage for a cover crop also serves as preparation for perennial grasses. It is carried out taking into account local recommendations so that before sowing grasses, the field is well cleared of weeds, a lot of moisture is accumulated and conditions are created for better planting of seeds and the appearance of friendly seedlings.
Fertilizer
Excessive acidity of the soil is one of the main reasons for the loss of clover, alfalfa from the herbage and their low productivity. Without liming acidic soils, the cultivation of, for example, alfalfa is practically impossible. Under perennial grasses, it is necessary to apply microfertilizers: molybdenum on acidic, boron on calcareous, and slightly acidic soils.
Sowing of perennial grasses is carried out with seeds of high sowing qualities. For the purpose of disinfection, they are pickled 3-4 weeks before sowing.
On the day of sowing, seeds of alfalfa, clover are treated with nitragin, cereal grasses with azotobacterin, as well as a solution of molybdenum or boron fertilizers. For a hectare norm of seeds, 50-100 g of ammonium molybdate, 2-3 g of boric acid (or 57 g of borax), dissolved in 1-2 liters of warm water, are consumed.
For storage, it is placed in stacks or stacks with a moisture content of 16-17%. One of the main conditions for improving the quality of hay is the timely harvesting of grasses.
Ticket 8
1. Many poisonous pests (kaz, rus, and lat names)
Common Medvedka (GryllotalpagryllotalpaL.) Ortak Medvedka
Nut-brown-footed (Melanotus brunnipes Germ.).
Wide nutcracker (Selatosomuslatus F.) Ken kumdy
Sand tarragon (Opatrumsabulosum L.)
Winter Scoop (Scotiasegetum Schiff.).
Stem moth (Ostrinianubilalis lib.).
2. Pest of grain crops (kaz, rus, and lat names)
Striped leafhopper (Psammotettix striatus L.)
WHEAT MITE Aceria tritici Shevtch.
Grass fly (Green-eye) Chlorops pumilionis Bjerk.
Winter fly. Hylemyia coarctata Fall.
Grain owl. Parastichtis basilinea.
Meromyza (Meromyza nigriventris Meg.)
4. Essay topic:
Write using scientific agricultural terms about protecting crops from pests and disease
Systems of integrated protection of agricultural crops from pests, diseases and weeds in