School of Human Relations was based on the development and application of the socio-psychological aspects of management, that is, the management of the workforce was carried out from the standpoint of psychology and human relations.

The founders of this school can be called scientists Elton Mayo (1880-1949), Walter Dilla Scott (1869-1955), Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933), Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), P. M. Kerzhintsev (1881-1940) and others.

The school of human relations in the development of management has established itself as a reaction to the limitations of rationalism in the management system. The achievements of psychology, sociology, etc. were put in the basis of human relations. This direction in the development of management science is associated with the transition to economic activity from extensive to intensive methods and the growing importance of the human factor. The main attention was paid to the fact that a person as an active subject of activity is a person, and it needs to be managed differently than other factors of production. The representative of the concept of human relations, the American psychologist and sociologist Elton Mayo, found that the influence of factors such as working conditions of workers on labor productivity is less than the personal relationships of people in production, communication between employees, their contacts in the process. economic activity. He concluded that labor productivity is ultimately decided not by technology (machine), but by human psychology. E. Mayo emphasized that labor productivity is influenced by such human factors as social interaction and group behavior. These studies gave rise to the social aspects of management, which E. Mayo formulated as follows: a person is a social being, he needs to work in a team; the cruel hierarchy (mutual ordering) of the bureaucratic system is contrary to human nature, which strives for freedom; leaders should rely on people, not products; integration in teams is necessary, that is, the creation of a responsible psychological climate.

AT modern conditions psychological factors, social values ​​are considered no less important than engineering. It turned out that in the process of managing a team of people, it is necessary to influence, first of all, the socio-psychological factors of motivating employees of an enterprise. Modern American sociologists argue that the organization as a social system is characterized by: leadership style, the formation of the goals of the company through collective discussion, decision-making with the participation of all employees of the enterprise, stimulating the interests of members of the production team using such group forms of activity as motivation for work, attracting both as many workers as possible to the control process, etc.

Mary Parker Follett noted that the manager must be a leader recognized by the workers, relying on their initiative, and not on power. He must proceed from the real situation and manage the production team according to the circumstances that the situation dictates, and not to what the management function ascribes. A significant contribution to the development of the theory of human relations was made by the psychologist Abraham Maslow. He developed the famous content theory of the hierarchy of human needs. According to this theory, people's motivation is based on a complex (set) of needs, and the needs of each individual worker are arranged in a hierarchical order. Satisfaction of needs occurs sequentially: first, the needs of the lower levels must be satisfied, and only after that - the needs of the next, higher level. high level that motivate human activity. A. Maslow proved that the motives of people's actions are not economic, material incentives, but there are various needs that cannot be satisfied with money alone.

Classical School of Management

The first school of management was classical scientific school formed in the period from the 90s of the 19th century. By the 20s 20th century The main representatives of this school were Frederick Taylor, Frank Gilbert, Henri Fayol and Max Weber.

M. Weber- developer of the concept of rational management bureaucracy (bureau - table, krat - strength, power).

Unlike the school of scientific management, which dealt mainly with the rational organization of the work of an individual worker, representatives of the classical school developed approaches to improve the management of the organization as a whole.

The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.

There are main directions of the classical school of management: scientific management; administrative approach; bureaucracy analysis.

The basis of all the management concepts that make up the classical school is the idea put forward by Adam Smith, according to which only economic rewards induce people to work: in order to get people to work, managers must satisfy their need for money.

The initial principles of the classical school:

People are driven only by economic gain.

Individuals are only passive material for manipulation by organizations that control and motivate their behavior. Emotions are incompatible with economic rationality.

Organizations must have ways to control the emotions and unpredictable behavior of employees.

The founder of such a direction as "scientific management" was Frederick Taylor, an American engineer. Taylor believed that the solution of the production problem required the rationalization of work operations. Managers should think and workers should work, Taylor believed. He outlined the main ideas of his system in The Foundations of Scientific Management (1911).

He understood the main task of scientific management as "the maximum provision of the maximum prosperity of the employer, together with the maximum prosperity of each hired worker." For the employer, "maximum prosperity" does not just mean maximizing profit in a short time, but the development of all areas of the enterprise to a state of constant prosperity. For employees, “maximum prosperity” means not just immediate higher pay, but also opportunities for growth so that they can work effectively at the highest levels of work that suit their personal capabilities.

The interdependence of managers and workers, and the need for them to work together toward the common goal of increasing the prosperity of all, is clear enough to Taylor. But why is there so much inefficiency here? He suggests three reasons:

• the mistaken belief of workers that any increase in labor productivity will inevitably lead to unemployment;

· imperfect management systems that force workers to limit productivity in order to protect their interests ("systematic shirking");

· inefficient, labor-intensive, artisanal methods of work based on "common sense".

Taylor concludes that the goal of "scientific management" should be to overcome these obstacles. This can be achieved by systematically examining the work to find the most efficient way to do it, and by exploring ways to improve managerial management in order to find more effective ways to supervise workers. Thus, scientific management must ensure a significant increase in labor efficiency and, at the same time, the prosperity of the organization, which should contribute to the growth of employment and high pay for employees.

To achieve this, Taylor formulated four "great foundational principles of management":

The development of a true science of work. Taylor points out that we don't really know what daily work consists of; the manager has unlimited opportunities to complain about the inadequacy of the workers, and the workers never really know what is required of them. This can be remedied by establishing a "large daily task", that is, the amount of work that an average, well-trained worker should perform under optimal conditions. For this, workers should be paid substantially more than they would be paid for similar work in enterprises that have not introduced scientific management methods. The income of workers must decline if they do not reach the scientifically established level of productivity.

Scientific selection and progressive development of the worker. To obtain such high pay, a systematic selection of workers must be made to ensure that they have the physical and intellectual qualities that enable them to achieve such productivity. Then they should be trained to the first-class level. Taylor believes that any worker can be first-class at a particular job. It is the responsibility of management to develop the workers, to present them with opportunities for advancement that would eventually enable them to perform jobs corresponding to their increasing qualifications and higher wages.

Constant and close cooperation between management and workers. There is an almost equal distribution of responsibility between managers and workers. Taylor showed that it is difficult to find any worker action that has not been preceded by some managerial action. With such close cooperation, the possibilities for conflict are almost completely eliminated, since the activation of power is not arbitrary. Managers must constantly demonstrate that their decisions are subject to the same discipline as the actions of workers, namely the scientific study of work.

The new work organization system proposed by Taylor required the definition of new requirements for managerial personnel and the development (for the first time in the history of management) of a list of "leadership qualities", including "mental and spiritual qualities necessary for the performance of all duties assigned to these people." In total, he identifies nine such principles:

· Education.

· Special or technical knowledge; physical agility and strength.

· Energy.

· Decisiveness.

· Honesty.

· Discretion and common sense.

· Good health.

Of course, this list of Taylor painted the image of an ideal leader-manager, which the author himself understood, noting that "people with six or eight qualities are almost impossible to get." However, to solve this almost insoluble problem of finding leaders who possess all of the above leadership qualities, Taylor proposes to abandon the military type organization: “Throughout the line of administration, the military type should be abolished and replaced by what we call the “functional type.” Functional administration consists in distributing the work of management in such a way that each employee, from assistant director down to the lowest posts, should perform as few functions as possible.

Basic principles of scientific management by F. Taylor are as follows:

· development of optimal methods for carrying out work on the basis of a scientific study of the costs of time, movements, efforts, etc.;

· absolute adherence to the developed standards;

· selection, training and placement of workers for those jobs and tasks where they can give the greatest benefit;

· pay based on performance (less results - less pay, more results - more pay);

· the use of functional managers exercising control in specialized areas;

· maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers in order to ensure the possibility of scientific management.

Typical for the classical school is the example of the studies of Frank and Lillian Gilbert, who, using special watches - microchronometers and a movie camera, identified and described 17 basic elementary hand movements, subsequently recommending them for the rational organization of labor.

The second direction of the classical school of management developed problems concerning the work of the entire organization as a whole, and also, in particular, ideas regarding the leadership qualities of well-trained administrators. Representatives of this direction tried to answer the question: "How to get people to work in the best interests of the organization?". The most significant contribution to the development of the ideas of administration was made by Henri Fayol. His most famous work, General and Industrial Administration, appeared in 1916.

Fayol's concept was based on the position that in any enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality; by the second, he meant the relationship of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol's research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research.

To manage, Fayol argued, means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting opportunities from all available resources.

According to Fayol, administration is part of management - a continuous universal process that includes six main groups of management operations:

1. technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);

2. commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);

3. financial (raising capital, accounting and rational spending of funds);

4. security (activities to protect property and people's lives);

5. accounting (analysis of statistical data, inventory, balance sheets, production costs);

6. administrative (organization, planning, command, coordination and control).

Fayol noted that these six groups of activities, or their essential functions, are always present in entrepreneurship. Each group of operations, or essential function, corresponds to a special "installation". There are different "installations": technical, commercial, financial, administrative, etc. These attitudes define the qualities or skills of managers that are closely related to their leadership responsibilities.

Each of these "attitudes" rests on a set of qualities and knowledge, which can be reduced to the following six headings:

§ Physical Qualities: health, strength, dexterity;

§ Mental Qualities: understanding, easy assimilation, prudence, strength and flexibility of the mind;

§ Moral qualities: energy, fortitude, consciousness of responsibility, initiative, sense of duty, tact, sense of dignity;

§ General development: a stock of various concepts that are not exclusively related to the area of ​​the function performed;

§ Special knowledge: relating exclusively to any bottom function - be it technical, be it commercial, be it financial, etc.;

§ Experience: knowledge arising from practice; memories of lessons personally learned from their facts.

Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to the management of an industrial enterprise. He believed that management activity itself should become a special object of study. Fayol defined management activities as having five essential common functions Key words: foresight (planning), organization, command, coordination and control. He formulated the rules and techniques for their implementation.

Foresight (planning). It is expressed in the development of an enterprise action program for technical, financial, commercial and other operations for the future and for the current period.

Fayol paid special attention to foresight. In his opinion, foresight is the most essential part of management.

The main place in foresight is given to the development of a program of action, by which he understood "the ultimate goal, the guiding line of conduct, the stages of the upcoming path and the means that will be put into action." The picture of the future cannot always be clearly presented, but the upcoming events can be worked out in sufficient detail.

Organization. Under the organization of the work of the enterprise, Fayol understood the provision of everything necessary for its work. Fayol distinguished between material and social organization. Material organization includes providing the enterprise with the necessary materials, capital, equipment, social organization - providing the enterprise with people. The social organism must be able to carry out all the operations necessary to carry out the production process.

Disposition. The purpose of management is to extract the greatest benefit from employees subordinate to the head in the interests of the enterprise as a whole. The head, who performs the function of the manager, must adhere to the following rules:

know perfectly subordinate employees;

Dismiss incapable workers;

know well the conditions connecting the enterprise and employees;

Set a positive example

· carry out periodic inspection of the social organism of the enterprise;

· hold meetings with leading employees in order to agree on the unity of directions and efforts;

strive to ensure that activity and devotion dominate among the personnel of the enterprise;

Do not pay much attention to trifles to the detriment of solving the most important issues.

Coordination. Its main goal is to achieve conformity and consistency between the various parts of the enterprise by establishing rational links in production. These links are of the most diverse nature: in terms of content, they can be technical, economic, organizational; on a hierarchical basis - links between different levels of the managed object. In addition, this includes links between production proper, on the one hand, and distribution, exchange, and consumers, on the other.

Enterprise management through the function of coordination is designed to rationally organize all these connections on the basis of their study and improvement.

The control. The task of control is to check the execution in accordance with the adopted program. Control should be carried out on time and have specific consequences.

Fayol considered the enterprise as a closed control system. He paid the main attention to the internal opportunities to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by improving the management process. Fayol formulated principles (rules) that, in his opinion, are applicable to any administrative activity. However, he noted that these principles are flexible and mobile and their application depends on changing circumstances.

Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:

1. Division of labor. The purpose of labor is to perform work that is larger in volume and better in quality, with the same efforts. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts are directed. Fayol believed in the efficiency of the division of labor, but only within certain limits, beyond which, in his opinion, it can lead to a decrease in the efficiency of production.

2. Authority. Official power must be supported by personal authority and complemented by responsibility.

3. Discipline. Mainly it has to do with compliance with agreements and rules. Assumes obedience, respect for the agreements reached, justly expected sanctions, etc.

4. unity of command. The employee must receive orders and instructions from his immediate supervisor.

5. Unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must have a plan and one leader. Fayol emphasized: "One leader and a single plan for a set of operations with a common goal."

6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of employees should be aimed at fulfilling the interests of the entire enterprise and should not prevail over them.

7. Reward, i.e. the price of the services provided. Remuneration must be fair and sufficient to motivate to work. This applies equally to workers and managers.

8. Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain correspondence between centralization and decentralization (Fig. No. 2), which depends on its size and specific operating conditions. Centralization - the amount of power and authority that a manager has at any level (the amount of decisions that he can make without the approval of the head). Fayol believed that for each type of decision there should be a corresponding level.

9. Scalar chain (hierarchy). All personnel must be distributed in strict accordance with the hierarchical structure. The scalar chain determines the subordination of workers. A scalar chain is a series of persons in leadership positions, ranging from the person in the highest position to the lowest level manager. It is a mistake both to refuse and to support this hierarchy, which is detrimental to business interests. There are vertical and horizontal organizations - a set of layers or levels of control forms a hierarchy. The number of management levels depends on the scope of management. Two thirds of all organizations have 5 to 8 levels of management. (The Roman Catholic Church has 5 levels of government - Priest, Bishop, Archbishop, Cardinal and Pope)

10. Order. Fayol divided order into "material" and "social". Each employee must have his own workplace, provided with everything necessary. Briefly, this principle can be formulated as follows: "A place - for everything and everything - in its place."

11. Impartiality. Managers at all levels of management must treat their staff fairly. An employee who feels fair to himself feels loyalty to the firm and tries to work with full dedication.

12. Staff stability. This refers to the high costs of training those who know the organization and the managers working in it. High employee turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization. Fayol believed that it is better for an organization to have a mediocre but willing leader than an outstanding manager who is about to leave.

13. Initiative. The emancipation of the initiative is seen as a means of motivating staff; the manager must encourage this process, even if it hurts his ego. It gives the organization strength and energy.

14. corporate spirit. Union is a force that is the result of the harmony of the personnel and management of the firm. The strength of the enterprise is in the "unity" of all employees of the enterprise. Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using the principle of "divide and conquer" in management. He believed that leaders should encourage collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.

Benefits of centralization and decentralization

Centralization	Decentralization
Controllability	Rapidity
Consistency	Flexibility
Coordination	Responsibility
Accountability	Adequacy
Saving effort	Motivation

The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to the streamlining of the management process. Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be definitively formulated. It should remain open to additions and changes based on new experience, its analysis and generalizations.

Fayol's main merit is that he determined what management is and what place a leader with leadership qualities takes in the management process. He is the first well-known researcher who gave a theoretical analysis of managerial activity - an analysis that has withstood half a century of critical discussion.

The basis of the direction, called the "analysis of bureaucracy" was laid by the German philosopher and sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). The range of his scientific interests is wide, but his main contribution to management theory was the development of the concept of bureaucratic organization and types of organizational leadership.

A bureaucratic organization is an organization that does not take into account the individual, personal characteristics of the staff and does not stimulate initiative, creative work.

Taylor's theoretical work was substantiated by the German sociologist Max Weber, who put forward the premise that a strict order, backed up by appropriate (developed by Taylor) rules, is the most effective method of work.

The division of the work performed into separate constituent elements - movements should be, according to the theory of Taylor-Weber, subjected to strict regulation and control.

Weber believed that a functioning organization can be "decomposed" into its component parts and "normalized" the work of each of them. This division of labor specializes the staff and, accordingly, builds an organization along a linear basis (that is, everyone is responsible for their actions only to a superior). In addition, Weber proposed and substantiated other thoughts on building a bureaucratic system. In particular, he believed that it was possible to regulate both the functions and the number of managers.

Weber put forward the concept of three types of power - traditional, rational and charismatic. These three types of power he calls "ideal types".

The traditional type is based on traditions, social habits, it is based on the traditional action, "as it was carried out by the patriarch and the patrimonial prince of the old type." According to R. Aron, in such a society, “the subject acts according to tradition, he does not need to set a goal, or determine values, or experience emotional excitement - he simply obeys the reflexes that have taken root in him for long practice.” Such societies are characteristic of the pre-industrial era.

Weber characterizes the rational-legal type of power as “dominance by virtue of “legality”, by virtue of belief in the obligatory nature of legal management and business “competence”, justified by rationally created rules, that is, orientation towards subordination in the implementation of established rules - domination in the form in which as it is carried out by the modern "civil servant" and all those holders of power who are similar to him in this respect. Thus, power is exercised in modern industrial states where people in organizations act in accordance with established laws and regulations.

Most interesting is the third type identified by Weber or type of "domination" - charismatic power.

"Charisma", in accordance with the early Christian tradition, is a concept for designating special abilities bestowed by God that distinguish and elevate a person above other people. Etymologically, "charisma" means a divine gift.

Weber defines charisma as follows: "authority beyond the ordinary gift (charisma), complete personal devotion and personal trust caused by the presence of the qualities of a leader in each person: revelations, heroism, etc. - charismatic domination, as it is carried out by the prophet, or - in the field politicians - an elected prince-commander, or a plebiscitary ruler, an outstanding demagogue and a political party leader. The followers of a charismatic leader submit without coercion, willingly and enthusiastically, to his authoritarian leadership. A charismatic leader calls for accomplishments, something new, unusual.

Weber, in accordance with the tradition of the classical school, believed that leadership is determined by the presence of a member of the organization of special qualities that can be more or less definitely considered "charismatic". Although he does not give a complete detailed list of the qualities of a leader that provide him with “charismatic” traits, it follows from the context of his works that these traits include will, determination, clarity of goals, leadership skills, the ability to “ignite” people, awaken the enthusiasm of followers and with perseverance and perseverance, relying on followers, manipulating them, to achieve goals.

Weber hardly suspected what a terrible force the mine was laid in the foundation of this whole construction. The bureaucratic system, as it turned out, has a remarkable feature - "the number of employees and the amount of work are completely unrelated."

However, it also has Advantages - accuracy, speed, unambiguity, subordination, reduction of friction, costs, material and human resources, hierarchy of power, control.

As a result of all the research, a classical model of organization was formed based on four principles:

a clear functional division of labor;

transmission of commands and orders along the "scalar chain" from top to bottom;

the unity of the manager;

Compliance with the "range of control".

All of the above principles of building an organization are valid for the present.

List of used literature

1. Management: Proc. manual for university students studying in the specialties 351300 Commerce and 061500 Marketing / Ed. V.V. Lukashevich, N.I. Astakhova. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2005 - 255s. - (Series "Higher professional education: Management").

2. Fundamentals of management: Proc. for universities / D.D. Vachugov, T.E. Berezkina, N.A. Kislyakova and others; Ed. D.D. Vachugova. - 2nd ed. revised and additional - M.: Higher school, 2003. - 376 p.: ill.

3. Organization management: textbook / ed. A.G. Porshneva, Z.P. Rumyantseva, N.A. Solomatina. -- 2nd ed., revised. and additional -- M.: INFRA-N, 1998;

4. Management, 3rd ed. O.S. Vikhansky, A.I. Naumov. M.: 2002;

5. A.T. Zub, S.G. Smirnov. Leadership in management. Publisher: Sunday, CJSC "Print - Atelier", Moscow / 1999

6. "Management in Russia and abroad", 5 "2002. "Evolution of approaches to the problem of enterprise personnel management." Gutgaru R.D.

Administrative (classical) school of management

A variation of the classical school of management is the administrative school. She studied the role and functions of a manager. It was believed that as soon as the essence of the manager's work was determined, it was easy to identify the most effective methods guides. One of the founders of this idea was A. Fayol (1841-1925). He divided the entire management process into five main functions that we still use in managing an organization: planning, organization, recruitment and placement, leadership (motivation) and control. On the basis of the teachings of A. Fayol in the 20s, the concept was formulated organizational structure firm, the elements of which represent a system of relationships, a series of continuous interrelated actions - management functions. The principles of management developed by A. Fayol should be recognized as an independent result of the science of management, administration (hence the name - "administrative school"). It is no coincidence that the Americans call the Frenchman A. Fayol the father of management. The essence of the principles of management developed by him is as follows: division of labor; authority and responsibility of power; discipline; unity of leadership; unity of management; subordination of private interest to the general one; remuneration for work; balance between centralization and decentralization; coordination of managers of the same level; order; justice; kindness and decency; staff stability; initiative. Among other representatives of the administrative school, one can single out M. Blumfield, who developed the concept of personnel management, or labor force management (1917), and M. Weber, who proposed the concept of rational bureaucracy (1921). He characterized the ideal types of domination and put forward the position that bureaucracy is an order that is established by rules and is the most effective form of human organization. The main feature of the classical school is that there is only one way to achieve production efficiency. In this regard, the goal of "classical" managers was to discover this perfect and only acceptable method of management. The classical school is one of the first stones in the foundation of the world management science. Thus, the classical school formulated the principles of organization management and substantiated the need for a bureaucratic management model. Recognizing the importance of the human factor, the classical school, however, did not set itself the goal of solving the problem of effective labor motivation. This gap was taken into account to a certain extent by the followers of the school of human relations.

Administrative or classical school

Considers the issues of improving the organization as a whole, in contrast to the school of scientific management, which studied individual production operations. In many ways, this difference was determined by the personality of the school developers. Taylor started his career as a worker. Henri Fayol (Fayol H . ), whose name is associated with the emergence of the administrative school of management, and who is called the father of management, led big company for coal mining. The goal of the administrative (classical) school was to create universal principles of governance.

Practically all scientific directions of management were engaged in the development of general principles of management. However, the development of the principles of management of the administrative (classical) school of management has become most widespread. The 14 principles of management formulated by Henri Fayol have the following content:

1. Division of labor - specialization of work necessary for the efficient use of labor. 2. Authority and responsibility - each worker must be delegated authority sufficient to be responsible for the work performed. 3. Discipline - workers must obey the terms of the agreement between them and management, managers must apply fair sanctions to violators of the order. 4. Unity of command - the employee receives an order and reports to only one immediate superior. 5. Unity of action - all actions that have the same goal must be combined into groups and carried out according to a single plan. 6. Subordination of interests - the interests of the organization take precedence over the interests of individual employees. 7. Remuneration of personnel - the receipt by employees of a fair remuneration for their work.

8. Centralization - the natural order in an organization that has a control center. The best results are achieved with the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. Authority (power) should be delegated in proportion to responsibility. 9. Scalar chain - an inextricable chain of commands, through which all orders are transmitted and communications are carried out between all levels of the hierarchy ("chain of chiefs"). 10. Order - a workplace for each employee and each employee at his workplace. 11. Fairness - established rules and agreements must be enforced fairly at all levels of the scalar chain. 12. Stability of staff - installation of employees on loyalty to the organization and long-term work, as high staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization. 13. Initiative - encouragement of employees to develop independent functions, within the boundaries of the powers delegated to them and the work performed. 14. Corporate spirit - the harmony of interests of the personnel and the organization ensures the unity of efforts (in unity - strength).

These principles cover two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational system for managing the organization, in particular, determining the best way to divide the organization into departments or work groups. The main contribution of the administrative school to management theory is that it considered management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning and organization. The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone.

Every week, Look At Me deconstructs a common misconception and tries to figure out why it is so attractive to the majority of people who defend it, and, in the end, why it is not true. In the new issue, we are talking about the fact that the assembly line was not actually invented by Henry Ford.

Statement:

Henry Ford invented the conveyor belt.

The name of Henry Ford is forever entrenched in the history of mankind. First of all, thanks to the brand of the same name: Ford was famous for his desire to make a cheap, affordable car for the masses, which he really achieved. Also, his surname went down in history in the form of the economic term "Fordism". The essence of Fordism is in the new organization of in-line production, which was made possible with the help of the assembly line. So history ranked the conveyor itself among the inventions of Ford.

Why is it not:

Ford did not invent the conveyor, but first organized in-line production.

Prior to this, Ford had already assembled his first car, but he did it by hand, like all automakers of that time. That is why the car was a piece of goods and extremely expensive, and the repair of transport turned into a technical puzzle. The automotive industry had to be brought under uniform standards.

The first step towards conveyor production was the assembly line, which appeared in 1901 in the Oldsmobile company, founded by Ransom Olds, who can be called the inventor of the conveyor in the modern sense. Parts and assemblies of the future car were moved on special carts from one working point to another. The prototype of the conveyor increased the production of cars from 400 to 5,000 units per year. Henry Ford understood the potential of Olds' invention and turned on all the resources to get around it by adapting and improving the developed system.

In 1903, Ford, studying the technology of stream production, visited the plant, where he observed how the carcasses of animals, moving under the influence of gravity, fell under the knives of the dividers. By adding belts to the conveyor, Ford introduced the improved technology to its factories. Thus, Ford, obsessed with the idea of ​​​​making its cars affordable, successfully used the experience accumulated before it. As a result, the Ford Model T cost about $400 and was built in less than 2 hours. This made Henry Ford a millionaire and a recognized engineering genius of the 20th century - but he did not invent the conveyor itself.

School of Human Relations School of "Human Relations" (1930s-1950s)

This school has focused its attention on a person: on how he interacts with others, how he reacts to various kinds of situations, wanting to satisfy his needs. The school of "human relations" sought to build models of human behavior, how it differs from the classical one, which dealt with organization models.

This scientific direction in management theory arose after it was discovered that labor regulation and high wages do not necessarily lead to an increase in labor productivity, as representatives of the school of scientific management believed.

A significant contribution to the development of the school of "human relations" was made in the 1940s-1960s. behavioral scientists (from the English behavior - behavior), who developed theories of motivation, in particular the hierarchical theory of needs (A. Maslow) and the theory of motivation, depending on job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (F. Herzberg).

Elton Mayo(1880-1949), founder of the "human relations" school, conducted the "Hawthorne Experiment", which proved that a person's behavior in an organization and the results of his work depend entirely on the social conditions in which this person is in the organization, and on the relationship that has developed between workers and between workers and managers.

The Hawthorne experiment led to the following conclusions:

social norms of behavior affect labor productivity;

social incentives have a significant impact on the behavior of members of the organization; so in the course of the experiment, cases were recorded when social incentives completely blocked the effect of economic incentives;

group factors of behavior dominate over personal ones;

informal leadership is important for the activities of the whole group.

It turned out that at times employees react much more strongly to the pressure of their colleagues in the work group than to the desires of management or monetary incentives. Their motivation was based not only on economic factors, but also on various kinds of needs that money can satisfy only partially and indirectly. This means that if a manager takes care of his subordinates, their level of satisfaction will increase, which will lead to an increase in labor productivity.

The school of "human relations" defines management as ensuring that work is done with the help of other people and recommended to manage human relations using effective methods of work of direct supervisors, consultations with employees, and providing them with the opportunity to communicate at work.

Mayo came to the conclusion that the productivity of an organization depends not only on working conditions, the availability of material incentives and management, but also on the social and psychological climate in the working environment. The founders of the "human relations" school recommended that managers determine the relationships that have developed in small informal groups, identify their leader, and then use the characteristics of such groups (psychological and social) to establish interpersonal relationships and increase workers' satisfaction with their work.

The main provisions of the school of "human relations" are as follows:

the labor collective is a special social group;

interpersonal relationships act as a factor in the growth of the efficiency and potential of each employee;

a rigid hierarchy of subordination is incompatible with the very nature of man and his freedom;

Leaders should focus more on people than on products produced by the organization.

In his main book Social problems industrial culture, Mayo argued that the result of the application of his theory in practice would be an increase in the prestige and loyalty of subordinates. In his opinion, it is quite realistic to achieve the desired goals in the organization precisely by meeting the needs of employees. Therefore, the art of communication should become the most important criterion for the selection of administrators, starting with the shop foreman.

Representatives of the "human relations" school expressed disagreement with some of the statements of the classical school. Thus, the complete division of labor leads to the impoverishment of the content of labor itself; only “top-down” hierarchy of power is not effective. Therefore, Mayo and his colleagues proposed to form a commission for production management, which would provide more effective communication in the organization and understanding of ideas, would allow better perception of the overall policy of the organization and implement it more effectively.

Delegation of responsibility "human" was considered as a two-way process: from below, the functions of administration and coordination of activities are delegated, and from above - the right to make decisions within the framework of their production functions.

Mayo and his supporters used the methods of psychology and sociology in their work; thus, they were the first to use tests and special forms of interviews when hiring personnel. The managerial school of "human relations" has enriched psychology with data on the relationship between the human psyche and his work activity.

The School of Human Relations appeared at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology, which is why the problem of increasing labor productivity was solved by studying human behavior in the labor process. Scientists understood that by focusing their attention on a person, they would be able to offer methods for effectively stimulating labor.

R. Owen was the first to pay attention to people. He argued that the company spends a lot of time on equipment maintenance (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on "care" for people ("living machine"), then, most likely, there will be no need to "repair" people.

E. Mayo is considered to be the founder of the school of human relations. He believed that the old managerial methods were entirely aimed at achieving material efficiency, and not at establishing cooperation, while simply showing attention to people has a very large impact on labor productivity.

Among other scientists of this direction, one can single out M. P. Folett, who made a huge contribution to the theory of leadership.

Representatives of the school of human relations sought to consider each organization as a certain "social system", which was a new step in the development of management theory.

The basic tenets of human relations theory are:

• people are mainly motivated by social needs and feel their individuality through relationships with other people;
• as a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of the process, the work itself has largely lost its attractiveness, so a person is looking for satisfaction in relationships with other people;
• people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than by inducement through control coming from management;
• the employee responds to the motivation of the manager, if the manager is considered by the employee as a means of satisfying his needs.

The task of management at this stage was to develop fruitful informal contacts in addition to formal relations (order-subordination) between members of groups (collective). Informal relationships in the process of joint work were recognized as a significant organizational force that contributes / hinders the implementation of corporate goals. Therefore, informal relationships should be managed. If the management takes care of their employees, then the level of satisfaction should increase, which leads to an increase in labor productivity.

Later (40-60s of the 20th century), the ideas of the school of human relations formed the basis of the school of behavioral sciences, whose representatives were A. Maslow, MacGregor, Herzberg, and others. Improvement in research methods in the field of sociology and psychology made it possible to study human behavior put on a scientific basis in the process of labor. The basis of the behavioral (behavioristic) approach to management are various aspects of social interaction, which led to the development of the theory and methods of forming a team as a special social community and interpersonal relationships within the organization. Particular importance is attached to the style of management and its impact on the productivity and satisfaction of employees with their work.

The founders of this school see the main tasks of management in the organization of personnel management, using the factors of communication, motivation, leadership, as well as maintaining the attitude towards personnel as active human resources. That is, they strive to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by increasing the efficiency of the human resource.

The main provisions of the behavioral school ("human relations") Briefly!

School of Human Relations (1930-1950). Behavioral Sciences(1950 to present). Two scholars Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo can be called the most authoritative in the development of the school of human relations in management (it was Miss Follett who was the first to define "management" as "the provision of work with the help of others." Mayo found that well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to increased productivity. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to peer pressure than they did to management desires and financial incentives. That. The main idea of ​​the school of human relations was that the decisive influence on the growth of worker productivity is not provided by material incentives, but by social and psychological factors. Later studies by Abraham Maslow and others helped to understand the reasons for this phenomenon - the motives of people's actions are not economic forces, as the supporters and followers of the school of scientific management believed, but various needs that could only be partially or completely satisfied with the help of money.

The works of D. MacGregor and K. Argyris contributed to the development of the school of behavioral sciences. Unlike representatives of the school of human relations, who focused primarily on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships, representatives of the behavioral approach focused it on improving the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of using its human resources.

8. Algorithm for building and applying models in management.?????? Didn't find anything!

Algorithm for building and applying models in management Briefly!

Model types

There are three types of models. Designers create models of aircraft, and architects create models of cities. This is physical models. The second type of models analog models-

used so often that sometimes it is not even realized. These models represent multiple connections through various analog intermediaries. Map of the main

The road is an analog model of the area, the car speedometer represents the speed using an analog display of the gauge needle, and the pie chart represents the results of a sociological survey in the form of circle sectors.

The most abstract is symbolic model, in which all concepts are derived by means of quantified variables, and all relationships are represented in mathematical, rather than physical or analog form.

Because symbolic models use quantified variables linked by equations, they are often also referred to as mathematical models,

quantitative models or, as in our case, tabular models (i.e. models

based on spreadsheets).

Building Models

All models (both simple and complex) are created by man. Unfortunately, there are no expert systems for building models (except for very narrow specialized applications). To model a situation, you first need to present it in a structured way, i.e. there needs to be some way to systematically think about the situation. It should be remembered that most often one has to deal with the formulation of managerial situations in the form of certain signs, and not in the form of a clear statement of problems. In the everyday sense, this managerial problem, but in our understanding - this is a sign. Formulation of the problem includes possible solutions and a method for measuring their effectiveness - two key components of any model. Structuring is the art of moving from a symptom to a clear statement of the problem. This is an extremely important skill that a manager must have in order to successfully develop models.

In quantitative business environment modeling, the interactions of many variables need to be described. To do this, it is necessary to formulate a mathematical model.

During decision making, the simulation performs the following. Sequences. 1 study of the environment, the formation of ideas about this environment and the construction of the form of the model. 2. analysis of models in order to obtain simulation results. 3. interpretation and verification of the adequacy of the simulation results. 4. implementation of the acquired knowledge for acceptance. dec. 5. validation of the model.

9. The essence and basic concepts of the process approach in management.

Approaches (methodology) to management include goals, laws, principles, methods and functions, management technologies and management practices. The main task of the organization's management system is the formation of professional management activities.

Process approach

The activity of performing functions is a process that requires certain resources and time. It was the process approach to management that made it possible to see the relationship and interdependence of management functions.

The management process reflects the recommended sequence of performing the main management functions, more precisely, the sequence of starting actions to perform functions, since the implementation of multi-loop feedback leads to the simultaneous implementation of functions.

The quality of the previous stage is a necessary condition for ensuring the quality of the subsequent stage (function). This expresses the interdependence of functions.

The linking processes are the communication process and the decision-making process.

There are many processes going on in an organization. M. Porter proposes a classification of processes based on their role in creating additional value (each process must make an additional contribution in relation to the previous process to the value of the final product). In accordance with this criterion, all processes are divided into three groups:

• the main ones, which are directly related to the production of products;
• supporting processes support the main processes (supply, personnel management, etc.);
• management processes include processes for setting goals and creating conditions for their achievement.

All of these processes are interconnected and form a single system.

Prerequisites for occurrence: underestimation of the human factor, simplification of ideas about the motives of human behavior, inherent in the classical school, served as a prerequisite for the emergence at the turn of the 30s. 20th century schools of "human relations", or "human behavior".

It is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology (the sciences of human behavior).

Founders of the "human relations" school: Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger.

main representatives.

1. Douglas McGregor is Professor of Industrial Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
2. Chris Argyris is a professor at Yale University.
3. Rensis Likert is director of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan.
4. A group of sociologists at Harvard University who regularly deal with "human relations" issues.

Main idea schools of "human relations" - to focus on the worker, and not on his task.

Subject of research the schools of "human relations" are:

• communication barriers;
• psychological motives of people's behavior in the production process;
• group norms;
• group relations;
• problems of "conflict and cooperation";
• informal organization.

The creation of this school is associated with the "Hawthorne experiments". An important role in the creation of this direction was also played by research Mary Parker Folliet, who was one of the first theorists who substantiated the need for a scientific study of the psychological aspects of management.

Folliet argued that management theory should be based not on intuitive ideas about the nature of man and the motives of his behavior, but on the achievements of scientific psychology. She was one of the first to put forward the idea of ​​"participation of workers in management" and fought to create an atmosphere of "genuine community of interests."

E. Mayo and F. Roethlisberger argued that the work itself and the "purely physical requirements" to the production process are relatively less important than the social and psychological position and well-being of the worker in the production process.

The main provisions of the school of "human relations".

1. Man is a "social being".
2. Strict hierarchy of subordination, formalization of organizational processes are incompatible with "human nature".
3. The solution of the "problem of man" is the business of entrepreneurs.

In place of the formalization of organizational processes, a strict hierarchy of subordination, characteristic of the "classical" theory, the concept of "human relations" puts the need for careful consideration of the informal aspects of the organization, the creation of new means of increasing labor productivity. According to the theorists of this school, these include "education of employees", "group decisions", "parity management" and "humanization of work".

Representatives of the "human relations" school believe that group values ​​are the most important condition for the scientific organization of management. They criticize Taylorism, which limits the tasks of management by stimulating the individual efforts of workers, and justify the need to stimulate not individuals, but groups.

At the turn of the 30s of the 20th century, the first prerequisites began to form in the West for the creation of a new school of human relations, which would complement the developments of the classical and The need to create qualitatively new forms of management based on interpersonal relations with the use of psychology and sociology. Each enterprise within the framework of this theory was considered as a separate social system. The purpose of the new methodology was to prove the importance as the main and main element of effective labor organization, as well as to shift the focus from work management to personnel management.

School of Human Relations. Modern approach to management

It is believed that the school of human relations was founded by scientists and Mary Parker Follet. Mayo, who conducted research in the field at the Western Electric Hawthorne plant in Illinois from 1927 to 1932, came to the conclusion that good working conditions, advanced ideas of production, material incentives and high wages are far from not always a guarantee of high performance. During the experiment, it became clear that employees have not only physiological, but also psychological, social needs, the dissatisfaction of which leads to a decrease in productivity and absolute indifference to work. The Mayo School of Human Relations proves that employees are influenced by such things as relationships in the group and the attention of management personnel to problems in the team.

The forces that arise in the course of business relationships between people often exceed and exert more powerful pressure on employees than the orders of management. For example, employees in the group tacitly set their own standards of behavior, performance standards, often colleagues were more worried about the approval of the team than the increase wages. It was customary in groups to ridicule upstarts who exceeded the generally accepted standards, as well as "nets" who worked poorly and underperformed.

The E. Mayo School of Human Relations recommended, in order to increase labor productivity, to carry out psychological measures to improve the microclimate in the team, improve relations between entrepreneurs and employees, treat a person not as a machine, but taking into account his personal qualities, such as mutual assistance, ability to cooperate, sociability.

School of Behavioral Sciences

The next stage in the development of the concept of human relations was the science of human behavior (behaviorism). The School of Behavioral Sciences provided answers to new questions, it helped to maximize the inner possibilities of each person and give an incentive to maximize labor efficiency. R. Likert, K. Argyris, F. Herzberg, D. McGregor became the key figures in the behavioral direction. Their research focused on aspects such as motivation, leadership, power, sociability and the quality of the daily working life of workers.

The determining factors of the new behavioral management model were the following: employee awareness of their capabilities, satisfaction with the results of work, expressed in the community of goals and interests of the team, social interaction. And on the part of the leadership, the school of human relations and behavioral sciences was guided by the psychology of the employee's behavior during labor process depending on motivation, communication with colleagues, the authority of the leader and leadership in the team.