What is a hybrid car. Pros and cons of hybrids. What Are F1 Hybrids Hybrid Definition

28.05.2022

Often on the packages of seeds in the name of the variety there is a mysterious inscription F1 . Who knows the secret meaning of these symbols, I often prefer to take them, rather than the usual varieties. What is remarkable about them and in general what is it - F1 hybrids?

First, what is a hybrid anyway?

Hybrid(lat. hybrida - crossbreed) - an organism (cell) obtained as a result of crossing genetically different forms. Hybrids may be intraspecific or, if obtained from crossing different species, distant. F1 hybrids are obtained by artificial pollination of flowers of different varieties of the same species.

F1 hybrids are the result of the work of breeders. First, a careful selection of parent plants is carried out. These must necessarily be varieties of the same species with the most opposite characteristics. For example, one variety is very cold-resistant, but does not tolerate drought well, while the other, on the contrary, is drought-resistant, but does not tolerate cold at all. As a result of crossing such opposite varieties, a genetically strong and adapted offspring appears.

This is where the mystery of the name F1 lies; is short for filly 1. In Latin, filli means child. So it turns out that F1 is a child of the first generation. Respectively F2, F3, F4, etc. are the next generations of this hybrid.

But the most valuable are the F1. As a result of crossing, the first offspring receives all the best from the parents. If one parent was fertile and the other resistant to disease, then the first offspring will "be able" to do both. However, in subsequent generations, the weakest aspects of the parent plants may begin to show through. Already in the second generation, the hybrid may lose all its valuable qualities. In some cases, a mutation may even occur. Therefore, it is not recommended to collect seeds from plants grown from F1 hybrids.

Sometimes F1 hybrids even outperform their parents in a number of positive ways. Such a miracle is called heterosis, and hybrids, respectively, heterosis. This must be indicated on the packages.

Of course, F1 seeds cost 2-3 times more than regular varietals. This is due both to the huge costs of breeders for the selection of parent plants, and to the fact that hybrids produce relatively less seeds than conventional varieties. But most of the time the cost is justified. Most F1 hybrids are seriously superior to their "non-hybrid" counterparts. They are more resistant to adverse environmental conditions, diseases and pests, give powerful harvests and generally develop better.

As a rule, all F1 hybrids are patented, and the parent plants are kept in the strictest confidence by the authors. So each hybrid is unique in its own way, and brings a good profit to the author. But just as not all that glitters is gold, not every bag with the inscription F1 contains quality seeds. The hybrid may simply be unsuccessful, or produce very tight seeds. Sometimes unscrupulous seed sellers slip seeds F2, F3, etc. instead of F1.

A hybrid is an organism resulting from the crossing of genetically different forms. Obtaining hybrids is a common practice in zoology and crop production. Experts cross different breeds and varieties to obtain species with new properties.

Read about the varieties and benefits of hybrids below.

What are the benefits of a hybrid?

A hybrid is an opportunity to combine the advantages of two in one organism. For example, there are two varieties of cucumbers, one variety has excellent disease resistance, the second - early ripening. Competent crossing of these two varieties at the output will give an early ripe and disease-resistant hybrid.

Named hybrids

Each crossing procedure always has a strong theoretical justification, but, nevertheless, not all hybrids meet the expectations of researchers; at the same time, there are hybrids that are so successful that they even get separate names.

Bester is a hybrid of sterlet and beluga, it was obtained in the USSR back in 1952, but it is still being bred, because it combines the rapid growth of beluga with the early maturation of sterlet. Bester is very prolific, has a length of up to 180 cm and a weight of up to 30 kg.

Also widely known hybrids: a mule is the result of crossing a donkey and a horse, a kama is a hybrid of a one-humped camel and a llama, a liger is a hybrid of a lion and a tigress.

What is a hybrid in the automotive industry?

Today, the word hybrid can often be heard in relation to a car. In this case, he means a car that uses more than one source of energy as fuel, for example, a classic internal combustion engine and an electric motor-generator.

What are hybrids? How are they produced? What are the advantages of hybrid seeds over varietal seeds. Why hybrid seeds are more expensive than varietal seeds. Why seeds obtained from hybrid plants are not recommended for cultivation in subsequent years.

Hybrid seeds are the fruit of the patient work of breeders. On sale there are seeds of hybrids of the first generation. The hallmark of a hybrid that distinguishes it from a variety is the symbol F1. For example "Farmer F1". F - These are children (from the Italian Filli). 1 is the generation number.

Hybrids are obtained by artificial pollination of flowers of different varieties of the same crop. For such crossing, parents are carefully selected until the planned positive result is obtained. And when the result is achieved, the hybrid is patented. Parental forms are usually kept secret. One of the parents does not always have the best characteristics from the point of view of the fruit consumer, however, it may have unique abilities to resist dangerous diseases. So when using a variety of characteristics of parents when crossing, children can be "born" who inherit resistance to diseases from one parent and excellent yields from the other. Just like people do. The fashion model says - "I got a beautiful figure from my mother, and an expressive look from my father."

Sometimes F1 hybrids outperform both parents in a number of positive ways. Breeders call this miracle heterosis. And hybrids with such signs are called heterotic. On the packaging with seeds, this feature is certainly mentioned. To date, there are a huge number of hybrids that seriously compete with varieties in the seed market. Hybrid seeds are expensive, and plants from them grow powerful, strong and abundantly fruiting.

Hybrid plants produce very few seeds compared to cultivars. This is one of the reasons for their high cost. Vegetable growers - lovers are advised to buy exactly expensive seeds, because in the end they will become cheap, bringing a plentiful and high-quality harvest. Cheap seeds are a lot more fiddly, and the end result is usually only satisfactory. Often there is a complete lack of harvest, as a result of unwisely purchased cheap seeds, they turn into gold.

Seeds obtained from hybrids should not be stored for sowing next year. Since in the second generation there is a “scattering” of the positive characteristics of the hybrid into parental forms, the quality of which will not satisfy the vegetable grower for the reasons stated above. What of them can grow, only the author of the hybrid knows.

A hybrid car (hybrid) is a vehicle that is equipped not with the usual internal combustion engine, but with the so-called hybrid power unit. The main difference between hybrid cars is that vehicles of this type are driven by the use of several energy sources: thermal and electrical. In other words, a hybrid car has several types of engines on board that power the car.

As for the very concept of a hybrid engine, this term is misunderstood by many as a special power plant. In fact, a “hybrid” should be understood as several engines of different types, which are combined into a complex single system for converting various energy sources into useful work. In modern automotive industry, hybrid cars are equipped with two types of power units: an electric motor is paired with an internal combustion engine.

Read in this article

The main advantages and disadvantages of hybrid cars

One of the first developments was a scheme in which each of the power plants is activated under certain conditions. If the car is idle or the movement occurs at low speed, then the electric motor turns the wheels. To accelerate and further maintain speed, a gasoline engine is connected. The subsequent development of technology has led to the fact that on hybrids there are several options for implementing the interaction of a familiar engine and an electric motor. Such interaction can be:

consistent;
parallel;
series-parallel;

Consistent interaction

The sequential scheme resembles electric vehicles, since the movement of the vehicle is realized through the operation of an electric motor. The internal combustion engine in this design is connected to a generator, power is supplied from the generator to the electric motor itself, and the battery is also charged in parallel. On a single charge of a lithium-ion battery with increased capacity, you can often go about 50 km. way, after which the internal combustion engine is activated, which extends the specified segment up to 10 times (about 500 km.)

Parallel interaction

Hybrids with parallel interaction of installations suggest the possibility of both separate operation of the internal combustion engine and electric motor, and simultaneous operation. This design is implemented by combining with the help of special couplings of an electrical unit, an internal combustion engine and a transmission. Such hybrid vehicles receive a low-power electric motor that not only drives the car, but also gives power during acceleration. Often, such an electric motor is a starter and a car generator, structurally occupying an intermediate position between an internal combustion engine and a gearbox.

Serial-parallel communication

In this design, the internal combustion engine and the electric motor are connected by means of a planetary gearbox. A feature of this implementation scheme is that each power plant can be turned on and off, while giving a minimum or maximum of power to the wheels. Moreover, the specified power is given separately or simultaneously. In the device of such a circuit, there is a generator that feeds the electric motor of the hybrid.

The market leader in hybrid vehicles today is Toyota Corporation, which uses a series-parallel implementation called Hybrid Synergy Drive.

The electric motor, internal combustion engine and generator are combined into a common system by means of a planetary gearbox. The internal combustion engine gives a minimum of power at the "bottom" (Atkinson cycle), allowing you to save fuel. A hybrid car with such an interaction scheme assumes:

Economy mode of driving only on electric traction with the engine off, during which the electric motor is powered by the battery.
Maintaining the set speed by distributing the power of the internal combustion engine to the wheels and the generator, from which the parallel operating electric motor is powered. The battery is also recharged.
The mode of intensive acceleration and serious loads, when the internal combustion engine and the electric motor work in parallel. In this mode, the electric motor is powered by the battery, without power take-off from the generator.

Exploitation of hybrids: busting the myths

Hybrid cars are a novelty that has not been fully improved and has many flaws. This is a myth, as the Toyota brand has been in full-scale mass production of hybrid models for almost 20 years.
In hybrids, the batteries are drained, which leads to problems. This is true, but only partially. At the initial stages of technology development, such cases occurred, but today high-precision electronics do not allow deep discharge of the battery.
Hybrid cars are more likely to break down, expensive, and difficult to repair. This is a myth, as hybrid vehicles are no less reliable than conventional diesel and petrol ICEs. Most service stations comprehensively service hybrids on a par with conventional cars. Moreover, the gearbox in hybrids eliminates the presence of frictions, which makes such a transmission simple and reliable, which cannot be said about various types of automatic transmissions. As for the internal combustion engine, the engine in hybrids often works at low speeds, does not reach peak loads. If we also take into account the Atkinson cycle, then the engine life of a hybrid engine is much longer than a conventional engine.
The ICE of a hybrid has less power, such cars lose in dynamics compared to their counterparts. Yes, the power of internal combustion engines in hybrids is less, but due to the addition of an electric motor, the total power of the units significantly exceeds the power of conventional analogues with one gasoline engine.
The consumption of a hybrid car in practice is not much different from a conventional car. This is partly true, since the consumption rate of hybrid cars directly depends on the driving modes. To achieve maximum economy, it is necessary to change the driving style to slow, calm and smooth, avoiding acceleration, active throttling, etc. In other words, strong pressure on the gas pedal will instruct the control system to start the internal combustion engine.

The idea of saving fuel in hybrid cars is to drive on electric power at speeds up to 60 km/h for as long as possible with a charged battery, which is often enough in dense city traffic. It is also necessary to add that the system takes into account a large number of factors: outside temperature, the degree of heating of the internal combustion engine and, battery charge, movement downhill or on a hill, etc. Under different conditions, the hybrid can use the internal combustion engine, or it can move only on electric energy.

A hybrid battery is hard to find commercially and takes up a lot of space in the trunk of a car. This is a myth, since batteries for hybrids are always available for order in auto stores, and there is also a wide selection on various Internet resources. As for free space, the battery practically does not occupy usable space in the luggage compartment.
You can't put gas on a hybrid car. This is a myth, since global manufacturers produce equipment that is compatible with a hybrid car.

Theories of reciprocal effects

"Maternal effect"

The maternal effect may be due to cytoplasmic heredity, homogametic constitution, and uterine development in mammals. There is actually a maternal effect, when the mother's genotype is manifested in the phenotype of the offspring. Molecules in the egg, such as mRNA, can influence the early stages of the developmental process. Maternal inheritance is also distinguished, in which the offspring receives part of the genotype exclusively from the mother, for example, mitochondria and plastidscontaining their own genome. In maternal inheritance, the phenotype of the offspring reflects its own genotype.

"Paternal Effect"

The greater influence of the father on the egg production of daughters in chickens was explained by the fact that in birds the female is the heterogametic sex, and the male is the homogametic sex. Therefore, the chicken receives its only X chromosome from the father, and if egg production is determined by it, then everything is clear. This interpretation can explain the chromosomal mechanism of the phenomenon in birds, but is no longer applicable to mammals. It is also surprising that traits that appear only in the female sex (the instinct of incubation, precocity and egg production in a chicken or milk yield and amount of milk fat in a cow), which, it would seem, should be transmitted by the mother, nevertheless are transmitted more by the father.

Interspecific and intergeneric hybridization

Interspecific hybridization is often observed both in nature and when cultivated by humans (keeping in captivity) in many species of plants and animals. In nature, in areas of contact between closely related species, so-called "hybrid zones" can form, where hybrids numerically predominate over parental forms.

Interspecific introgressive hybridization is widespread in Daphnia. In some summer populations of daphnia, hybrids predominate, making it difficult to define species boundaries.

The famous experimental hybrid Rafanobrassika ( Raphano-brassica) was obtained by G. D. Karpechenko when crossing radish with cabbage. Both species belong to different genera and have 18 chromosomes each. The hybrid obtained as a result of doubling the number of chromosomes (36) was able to reproduce, since in the process of meiosis, the chromosomes of radish and cabbage were conjugated with their own kind. He had some of the characteristics of each of the parents and kept them pure when breeding.

Intergeneric hybrids (both natural and obtained by breeders) are also known in the families of cereals, rose, citrus, orchids, etc. Thus, the hexaploid genome of soft wheat was formed by combining the diploid genomes of two ancestral wheat species and one species of the closely related genus Aegilops ( aegilops).

Hybrids in botanical nomenclature

Hybrid plant taxa are called nothotaxa.

Hybridity is indicated by the multiplication sign "×" or by adding the prefix "notho-" to the term denoting the taxon's rank.
Hybridity between taxa is indicated by an "×" placed between the names of these taxa. The names in the formula are preferably arranged in alphabetical order. The direction of crossing can be indicated by symbolic sex signs (♂ and ♀).
Example: Phalaenopsis amabilis () Blume × Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb.f.
Hybrids between members of two or more taxa may be given names. In this case, the sign "×" is placed before the name of the intergeneric hybrid or before the epithet in the name of the interspecific hybrid. Examples:
A nothotaxon cannot be designated if at least one of its parent taxa is unknown.
If, for some reason, the letter “x” is used instead of the “×”, then one letter space can be made between this letter and the epithet, if this helps to avoid ambiguity. The letter "x" must be lowercase.
The notogeneic name of a hybrid between two or more genera is either a concise formula in which the names adopted for the parental genera are combined into one word, or is formed from the name of the researcher or gardener involved in this group. Examples:
- × Rhynchosophrocattleya (= Rhyncholaelia × Sophronitis × Cattleya)
- × Vuylstekeara (= Cochlioda × miltonia × Odontoglossum). The genus was registered in 1911 by the famous Belgian orchid collector and breeder Charles Vuylsteke (1844-1927).
Taxa considered to be hybrid in origin need not be designated as nothotaxa. Examples:

Hybrids in crop production

When creating new varieties of cultivated plants, hybrids are obtained manually (hand pollination, removal of panicles), chemical (gametocide) or genetic (self-incompatibility, male sterility) means. The resulting components can be used in various controlled crossing systems. The goal of the breeder is to use the heterosis, or the vitality of the hybrid, which is most effective in the F1 generation, to obtain the desired advantage in yield or some other characteristic in the resulting generation, or hybrid. This heterosis is especially pronounced in crosses between inbred lines, but may also show advantage in other systems.

A hybrid obtained by a single cross between two inbred lines usually proves to be highly uniform. The fact that he is heterozygous is of no consequence, as there is usually no further breeding beyond the F1 generation, and the variety is maintained by multiple returns to controlled parental crosses.

Hybrids in zoology

Sterility of hybrids

Unfavorable interactions between cytoplasmic and nuclear genes also lead to the sterility of interspecific hybrids in different groups of plants and animals.

Plant and animal species often differ in translocations, inversions, and other rearrangements that, when heterozygous, cause semi-sterility or sterility. The degree of sterility is proportional to the number of independent rearrangements: so heterozygosity for one translocation gives 50% sterility, for two independent translocations - 75% sterility, etc. Plant sterility is determined by the gametophyte. In heterozygotes for chromosomal rearrangements, as a result of meiosis, daughter nuclei are formed that carry shortages and duplications in certain areas; functional pollen grains and ovules are not obtained from such nuclei. Chromosomal sterility of this type is very common in interspecific hybrids of flowering plants.

The course of meiosis in a hybrid can be disturbed either by genetic factors or by differences in the structure of chromosomes. Both gene and chromosomal sterility can be expressed in the aberrant course of meiosis. But the types of meiotic aberrations are different. Gene sterility is common in animal hybrids, and chromosomal sterility is common in plant hybrids. Genetic analysis of some interspecific hybrids of plants shows that often in one hybrid both chromosomal and gene sterility is observed simultaneously.

Destruction of hybrids

In cases where a certain interspecific hybrid is sufficiently viable and capable of reproduction, the generations of its descendants will contain a significant proportion of non-viable, subvital, sterile and semi-sterile individuals. These types are unfortunate recombination products resulting from interspecific hybridization. Such suppression of power and fertility in hybrid offspring is called hybrid breakdown. The destruction of hybrids is the last link in a series of barriers that prevent interspecific gene exchange.

Hybrid breakdown is invariably found in the progeny of interspecific hybrids in plants, where it is easier to observe than in most animal crosses.

Hybrids with their own names

Bester - (according to the first syllables of the words beluga and sterlet), a hybrid artificially obtained in the USSR as a result of crossing a beluga with a sterlet in 1952. Combines the rapid growth of the beluga with the early maturation of the sterlet. Prolific, length up to 180 cm, weight over 30 kg.
Wolfin is a hybrid of the bottlenose dolphin and the lesser killer whale.
A zebroid is a hybrid from a cross between a zebra and a domestic horse.
A zebrul is a cross between a zebra and a donkey.
Bison is a hybrid of bison and bison.
Kama, or camel, is a hybrid of a one-humped camel and a llama.
Kidas (kidus) - a hybrid of sable and pine marten.
The killer whale is a hybrid of a female bottlenose dolphin and a male black killer whale.
The red parrot is an aquarium fish, a hybrid of the cichlid family.
Leopard - a hybrid of a female African leopard and a lion
Leopon is a hybrid of a male leopard and a lioness.
liger panthera leo) and tigress ( Panthera tigris).
Liliger - a hybrid from crossing a lion ( panthera leo) and ligers
A hinny is a hybrid of a stallion and a donkey.
Mezhnyak is a hybrid of black grouse and capercaillie.
The mule is a hybrid of a donkey and a horse.
Mullard is a hybrid obtained by crossing Muscovy duck drakes with Peking White, Orgpington, Rouen and White Allier ducks.
Nar is a hybrid of one-humped and two-humped camels.
Peasley (grolar) - a hybrid of polar and brown bears
The tigon is a hybrid of a tiger and a lioness.
Cuff is a hybrid of a white hare and a brown hare.
Hainak (Zo) - a hybrid of a yak and a cow.
Honorik is a hybrid between a ferret and a European mink.
Jagopard is a hybrid of a jaguar and a leopard.

Hybrids in the Orchidaceae family

Many species of the same genus and even representatives of different genera easily interbreed, forming numerous hybrids capable of further reproduction. Most of the hybrids that have appeared over the past 100 years have been created artificially with the help of targeted