Presentation on physiology on the topic of blood. Blood buffer systems

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Leukocytopoiesis

Leukocytes and other blood cells are formed in the bone marrow from a common precursor (1)

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Neutrophils

The vast majority of blood leukocytes (40-70%) are neutrophils. The diameter of neutrophils is 10-15 microns. After leaving the bone marrow, neutrophils circulate in the blood for only a few hours (about 8 hours on average). Then they, having left the bloodstream, for several days are among the connective tissue elements of most organs. Here they are able to capture and digest (phagocytize) microorganisms. For this property and their relatively small size, neutrophils are called microphages.

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Leukocyte depot

The bloodstream contains only a small number of mature cells. 20 - 40 times more of them are in the organs - depots, the main of which is the place of formation - the hematopoietic bone marrow, as well as the spleen, liver, capillaries of the lungs. After formation, a mature neutrophil remains in the bone marrow for 5-7 days. From here, neutrophils can easily go out and replenish the pool of circulating cells that accumulate around the site of injury, the focus of inflammation - redistributive leukocytosis.

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Functions of neutrophils

Neutrophils are involved in: phagocytosis, pyrogen synthesis, the formation of interferon, a substance that acts on viruses, the synthesis of factors that have a bactericidal effect (lactoferrin), the synthesis of factors stimulating tissue regeneration (acid glycosaminoglycans) after their damage. .

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Monocytes

Monocytes make up 2-10% of leukocytes. These are the largest mononuclear blood cells, having a diameter of 16-20 microns. Blood monocytes after their relatively long period of circulation (T1 / 2 up to 72 hours) leave the bloodstream and in the tissues turn into cells of the macrophage system. In addition, macrophages can transform into other cells. Thus, blood monocytes are not end differentiated cells; they still retain the potential for further development.

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Macrophages among liver cells

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hematopoiesis

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Regulation of hematopoiesis by macrophages

The macrophage system also plays an important role in the regulation of hematopoietic processes, forming various interleukins. In total, monocytes secrete more than 100 biologically active compounds. The development of each hematopoietic germ occurs under the influence of specific factors, among which the main ones can be distinguished: erythropoietin (EP) promotes the formation of red blood cells; M-CSF - monocyte colony stimulating factor; GM-CSF - granular monocytic colonies; G-CSF - granulocytic; interleukin-3 (IL-3) - pluripotent colonies; IL-2 and IL-4 are lymphocytes.

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Basophils

These are cells with a segmented nucleus, having a diameter of 10-12 microns. In the blood they are about 1%. Basophils contain a large number of biologically active compounds such as heparin, an anticoagulant, and histamine, which increases the permeability of capillary walls. Basophils found in tissues are called mast cells.

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Basophils are a source of heparin-histamine, bradykinin, serotonin and a number of lysosomal enzymes. The function of basophils is to maintain blood flow in small vessels, to regulate the growth of new capillaries, and also to participate in ensuring the migration of other leukocytes in tissues to the site of inflammation.

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Pathophysiology of basophils

They synthesize "eosinophilic chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis" and "slowly reacting substance of anaphylaxis". Therefore, basophilia is one of the signs of sensitization of the body with allergies.

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Eosinophils

Cells with a diameter of 12-17 microns, having a bilobed nucleus. Their blood contains 1-5%. As they mature, two types of enzyme-containing granules are formed in their cytoplasm: small and large.

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Functions of eosinophils

Small granule arylsulfatase inactivates a number of anaphylactic substances, reducing the severity of immediate hypersensitivity reactions. The basic protein of large granules is able to neutralize heparin. Eosinophils under the influence of chemotactic factors migrate to the site of the appearance of a small amount of antigen, where the antigen-antibody reaction occurs.

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For the function of eosinophils, the main (staining with basic dyes) protein with a molecular weight of 9200, contained in large granules of eosinophils, is important. Due to this protein, they have a cytotoxic effect on helminths and their larvae.

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Eosinophilia

With a long stay in the body of helminths, allergization develops eosinophilia - an increase in the number of circulating cells. Eosinophilia is due to the fact that immature cells that have left the bone marrow are initially in the blood for a short time, as they enter the tissues. From here they can again return to the bloodstream, where they have been circulating for many days now, creating the effect of eosinophilia.

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Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes make up 20-40% of leukocytes. These mononuclear cells, like monocytes, retained the ability to proliferate and differentiate. In the blood of an adult, T-lymphocytes account for about 75% of lymphocytes, 15% are B-lymphocytes, and the remaining 10% of lymphocytes belong to the so-called “null” cells.

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According to their functions, lymphocytes can be divided into three types: killers (from the English killer - killer), helpers (from the English helper - assistant) and suppressors (from the English suppress - to suppress). Helpers determine the strength of the immune response. With aging and the tumor process, the content of helpers decreases, and, for example, with reactions of rejection of a transplanted graft, it increases. The strength and direction of the immune response are also regulated by suppressor cells, which mainly limit the proliferation of clones of lymphoid cells, antibody production, and the activity of killer cells.

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Functions of lymphocytes

Lymphocytes are involved in the reactions of antimicrobial and cellular immunity, ensuring the destruction of mutated cells. Summing up a brief description of the functions of lymphocytes, the following functional purposes can be noted. T-lymphocytes: 1) serve as the main effector of cellular immunity (killers), 2) regulate the severity of the immune response (suppressors), 3) provide recognition of "foreign"; B-lymphocytes: 1) carry out the synthesis of antibodies (turning into plasma cells), 2) provide immune memory, 3) participate in cellular immunity reactions (B-killers, B-suppressors).

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Scheme of formation of antibodies

The synthesis of antibodies (immunoglobulins) by plasma cells occurs in the lymphoid organs. Each of the immunoglobulins consists of light and heavy chains. Several types of immunoglobulins can be synthesized: IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, IgE. They have different mass (from 160,000 to 970,000) and have different ability to combine with the antigen and neutralize it. In a healthy person, 75% of antibodies are IgG.

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Antibody titer during primary and booster immunization

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The immune-regulating function of the thymus

The thymus gland is not only the site of maturation of T-lymphocytes, but also the regulator of immunity. The thymus is an active endocrine organ that synthesizes a number of hormones that provide regulation of cellular homeostasis and immune defense against bacterial agents. These compounds carry out both a local paracrine effect and a distant effect on other organs of the immune system. Among a large number of biologically active compounds of it, one can single out some whose hormonal activity has been established. Most of them are polypeptides.

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How does thymus activity change with age?

The thymus gland is most active in childhood and adolescence. But already in the period from 20 to 50 years, the number of lymphocytes in the thymus and its hormonal activity gradually decrease. By the age of 60, thymosin-synthesizing cells may completely disappear from the thymus medulla. At the same time, epithelial cells remain in the cortical layer, synthesizing their hormones (a-, b3-, b4-thymosins). The hormones synthesized in these cells probably support the formation of a certain amount of T-lymphocytes in the thymus. In women, the thymus involutes more slowly than in men.

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What is the role of other hormones in the regulation of immunity?

Humoral regulation of immunity is carried out by a complex of hormones synthesized in the endocrine glands, as well as biologically active compounds formed in the immune system itself. Tropic hormones of the pituitary gland (ACTH, TSH, STH, prolactin and a number of others), opioid peptides of the brain and adrenal glands, glucocorticoids and catecholamines of the adrenal glands, hormones of the gonads, thyroid gland are involved in the regulation of immunity. The participation of these hormones and other biologically active compounds completely controls the multiple links of the immune system. A very important role in the regulation of the immune response is played by the sex glands, the hormonal activity of which changes significantly in the process of ontogenetic development. The physiological level of estrogen, stimulating the phagocytic ability of macrophages, the function of B-cells, accelerating their differentiation, while significantly inhibiting the function of T-suppressors. Testosterone stimulates cell migration from the thymus, but suppresses other immune responses. Receptors for sex steroids are localized on thymic reticuloendothelial cells, which have hormonal activity.

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Recirculation of lymphocytes and monocytes

B-B-lymphocytes, T-T-lymphocytes, Mo - monocytes Ma - macrophages

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Mechanism of erythrocyte agglutination

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Blood groups according to the AB0 (H) system

In the absence of agglutinogen A or B in the erythrocyte, there is necessarily agglutinin to it in the blood serum. According to the ratio of these factors, all people can be divided into 4 blood groups: Group I - erythrocytes contain 0 antigen, plasma a and b antibodies; II - A and ; III - B and a; IV - AB and o

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Formation of blood groups

The blood plasma of a newborn, as a rule, does not yet have antibodies a and b. After birth, they gradually appear (the titer grows) to the factor that is not in his erythrocytes. It is believed that the production of these antibodies is associated with the entry into the blood of children of some substances from food, or from substrates produced by the intestinal microflora. These substances can pass from the intestine into the blood due to the fact that the intestinal tract of the newborn is still able to absorb large molecules.

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Content. 1. The concept of the blood system. Functions of the blood. Volume and distribution of blood. 2. The composition of the blood of mammals. Plasma and serum. 3. Physical and chemical properties of blood.

Blood is a type of connective tissue that, together with lymph and tissue fluid, makes up the internal environment of the body.

The idea of ​​blood as a system was created by G. F. Lang in 1939. Four components were included in this system: peripheral blood circulating through the vessels, hematopoietic organs, blood-destroying organs, and a regulating neurohumoral apparatus.

The blood system has a number of features: dynamic, i.e., the composition of the peripheral component can constantly change; lack of independent significance, since it performs all its functions in constant motion, that is, it functions together with the circulatory system. its components are formed in various organs.

Regulatory function Thermoregulatory Humoral regulation Preservation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body Regulation of hematopoiesis, etc.

Volume and distribution of blood. The volume of blood in animals averages 7 -9% of body weight (5 -13%) Cattle 7% (40 -50 l) Horses 7 -10% (60 -80 l) Sheep 7% (7 -10 l) Pig 5-6% (4.5-6.5 L) Poultry 10% (180-315 ml) Dog 8-9% (0.4-1 L) Cat 7% (140-280 ml) Human 7% (4 , 5 -5 l)

The blood in the body is in the form Circulating - 55 -60% of the total blood volume Deposited - 40 -45% of the total blood volume

Blood depot Capillary system of the liver (15 -20%) Spleen (15%) Skin (10%) Capillary system of the pulmonary circulation (temporary depot)

Plasma predominates in the circulating blood - 50-60%, the content of formed elements - 40-45%. In deposited blood, on the contrary, plasma - 40-45%, and formed elements - 50-60%

2. The composition of the blood of mammals. Plasma and serum. Blood consists of plasma - the liquid part; and formed elements - cells. To determine the percentage of plasma and formed elements, the hematocrit is calculated.

Blood Plasma 55 -60% Formed elements 40 -45% Water 90 -92% Dry matter 8 -10% Organic Substances Proteins, nitrogen-containing substances of non-protein nature, nitrogen-free organic components, enzymes Inorganic Substances (Anions and cations) Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets

Blood plasma proteins make up 7-8% of the dry residue Hyperproteinemia - with an increase in the concentration of proteins Hypoproteinemia - with a decrease Paraproteinemia - with the appearance of pathological proteins Dysproteinemia - with a change in their ratio

Normally, albumins and globulins are present in plasma. Their ratio is determined by the protein coefficient, which is 1.5–2.0.

Albumins make up about 60% of all plasma proteins; they are synthesized in the liver; they carry out a nutritional function; they are a reserve of amino acids for protein synthesis; they provide the suspension property of blood, since they are hydrophilic proteins and retain water; participate in the maintenance of colloidal properties due to the ability to retain water in the bloodstream; transport hormones, cholesterol, inorganic substances, etc.

With a lack of albumin, tissue edema occurs (up to the death of the body) - hungry edema.

Globulins concentration varies within 30-35% are formed in the liver, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes.

During electrophoresis, globulins break up into several types: Alpha-1 fraction - globulins Alpha-2 fraction - globulins Beta-globulin fraction Gamma-globulin fraction

Functions of globulins 1) protective (immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, plasminogen); 2) transport (haptoglobin and ceruloplasmin); 3) pathological (interferon (formed during the introduction of viruses), C-reactive protein).

The organic substances of blood plasma also include non-protein nitrogen-containing compounds (amino acids, polypeptides, urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia) nitrogen-free organic substances: glucose, neutral fats, lipids, enzymes that break down glycogen, fats and proteins, proenzymes and enzymes involved in blood coagulation and fibrinolysis.

Plasma inorganic substances make up 0.9 - 1%. These substances include mainly cations Na +, Ca 2 +, K +, Mg 2 + and anions Cl -, HPO 4 2 -, HCO 3 -. regulate osmotic pressure; support p. H blood; participate in the excitation of the cell membrane.

Bodily fluids are formed from blood plasma: vitreous fluid, fluid of the anterior chamber of the eye, perilymph, cerebrospinal fluid, coelomic fluid, tissue fluid, blood, lymph.

Blood serum = plasma-fibrinogen Serum is a yellowish liquid that separates from a clot consisting of fibrin and cellular elements. The process of obtaining serum is called defibrination, that is, the release of plasma from fibrin.

Blood serum is most often used in the following tests: Biochemical blood test Blood test for infectious diseases Test to assess the effectiveness of vaccination Hormone levels

From the blood serum of animals and people immunized with certain antigens, immune sera are obtained that are used to diagnose, treat and prevent various diseases.

3. Physical and chemical properties of blood are determined by its composition: 1) suspension; 2) colloidal; 3) rheological; 4) electrolyte.

Suspension property (erythrocyte sedimentation rate) is associated with the ability of formed elements to be in suspension. The colloidal property (oncotic pressure) is provided mainly by proteins that can retain water (lyophilic proteins). The electrolyte property (osmotic pressure and blood reaction) is associated with the presence of inorganic substances. The rheological capacity (viscosity, density) provides fluidity and influences the peripheral resistance.

Rheological properties of blood Viscosity If the viscosity of water is taken as a unit, then the viscosity of whole blood is 3-6 times greater. Cattle 4, 7 Pig 5, 7 Horse 4, 3 Dog 5, 0 Chicken 5, 0 Rabbit 5,

Density of blood (g/cm3) Relative density of whole blood 1.040-1.060, plasma - 1.025-1.034; red blood cells - 1,080- 1,040. Cattle, horse 1, 055 Pig 1, 048 Dog 1, 056 Chicken 1, 054 Rabbit 1,

The viscosity and density of blood is created by proteins and red blood cells. Indicators of viscosity and density of whole blood may increase with large losses of water in cases of prolonged diarrhea, vomiting, and profuse sweating.

Osmotic blood pressure Osmotic pressure is the force that ensures the passage of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane from less concentrated solutions to more concentrated ones.

The osmotic pressure of the blood is created by salts, glucose and - is 7-8 atm. Which corresponds to the osmotic pressure of 0.9% sodium chloride solution (Na. CI), which is called saline.

Isotonic solutions - the osmotic pressure of which is equal to the osmotic pressure of the blood plasma; Hypotonic solutions - the osmotic pressure of which is lower than the osmotic pressure of blood plasma; Hypertonic solutions - the osmotic pressure of which is higher than the osmotic pressure of blood plasma.

Regulation of osmotic pressure There are osmoreceptors in the walls of blood vessels, tissues, and the hypothalamus that respond to changes in osmotic pressure. Their irritation causes a reflex change in the activity of the excretory organs and they remove excess water or salts that have entered the blood.

Oncotic blood pressure Oncotic blood pressure depends on the proteins contained in the plasma (g. o. albumin). That is, the osmotic pressure of blood plasma proteins is called oncotic, and in warm-blooded animals it averages 30 mm Hg. Art. Oncotic pressure promotes the transfer of water from the tissues into the bloodstream, preventing the development of edema.

Blood reaction. buffer systems. The reaction of the blood is due to the concentration of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions in the blood. The reaction of the blood is slightly alkaline (r. H 7.35 - 7.55) and is kept at a relatively constant level due to the presence of buffer systems in the blood

The blood reaction is a rigid constant. Extreme limits p. H blood compatible with life 7, 0 -7, 8. The shift of the reaction to the acid side is called acidosis and is caused by an increase in hydrogen ions (H +) in the blood. The shift of the reaction to the alkaline side is called alkalosis and is associated with an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-).

Weak (slightly dissociated) acids and their salts formed by a strong base have buffering properties. Buffer systems include carbonate, phosphate, blood plasma proteins and hemoglobin (in practice)

The formed elements of blood include: erythrocytes - red blood cells; leukocytes - white blood cells; platelets are platelets. They account for 40-45% of the total blood volume.

PHYSIOLOGY OF ERYTHROCYTES Erythrocytes (from the Greek erythros - red) are red blood cells that make up the bulk of the blood and determine its red color.

The structure of erythrocytes The erythrocytes of fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds are large, oval-shaped cells containing a nucleus. Mammalian erythrocytes are smaller, lack a nucleus, and have the shape of biconcave discs (in llamas and camels, erythrocytes are oval)

In an unfixed (native) preparation, erythrocytes look like yellow rounded formations. In fixed and stained smears, they are found as round cells of pink or grayish-pink color with enlightenment in the center.

The erythrocyte consists of a stroma filled with hemoglobin and a semi-permeable (possesses selective permeability) protein-lipid membrane. The cell membrane of erythrocytes is quite plastic, which allows the cell to deform and easily pass through narrow capillaries.

Functions of erythrocytes: Respiratory Nutrient Protective Homeostatic Participation in the process of hemocoagulation They are carriers of various biologically active substances (enzymes, vitamins, hormones, metabolites). They carry group signs of blood (the presence of agglutinogens on the membrane).

The number of red blood cells in the blood of agricultural animals. The totality of all erythrocytes of the body (circulating and deposited blood, bone marrow) is called an erythron. The concept of "erythron" was introduced by the American W. Castle. Erythron is a closed system in which the destruction and formation of red blood cells occurs.

The number of erythrocytes in the blood Cattle 5 -10 million / μl Horse 6 -10 million / μl MRS 7.5 -15 million / μl Pigs 5 -8 million / μl Dogs 5.4 -7.8 million / μl Cats 5, 8 - 10.7 million/µl In the same organism, the number of erythrocytes per unit volume of blood may vary.

Increase in the number of red blood cells Erythrocytosis (from Latin erythrocytus - red blood cell, erythros - red, kytus - cell, osis - pathological increase) - an increase in the number of red blood cells, hemoglobin and an increase in hematocrit.

Classification (by origin): 1. Absolute (true), due to increased erythropoiesis: a) primary (congenital) - an independent, genetically determined disease (in animals -> isolated cases in cattle and dogs are described); b) secondary, due to the activation of erythropoiesis (hypoxic conditions): - physiological (alpine regions); - pathological (pathology of the lungs, cardiovascular system, blood).

2. Relative (false), due to thickening of the blood - dehydration of the body, - redistribution of blood.

Decrease in the number of erythrocytes Erythropenia (from Latin erythrocytus - erythrocyte, erythros - red, kytus - cell, penia - pallor) - a decrease in the number of erythrocytes and hemoglobin per unit volume of blood.

Anemia (anemia, or general anemia) is a clinical and hematological syndrome or an independent disease characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin (or only hemoglobin) per unit volume of blood and changes in the qualitative composition of red blood cells.

Erythropenia occurs with prolonged underfeeding of animals, anemia of various etiologies, leukemia, tumors, infectious diseases, hemosporidiosis, liver and kidney diseases.

Properties of erythrocytes Plasticity; Osmotic stability; The presence of creative connections; The ability to settle; Aggregation; Destruction.

The plasticity of erythrocytes is the ability to reversibly deform when passing through narrow capillaries and micropores. Plasticity is due to the structure of the cytoskeleton, in which the ratio of phospholipids and cholesterol is very important. This ratio is expressed as a lipolytic coefficient and is normally 0.9. With a decrease in the amount of cholesterol in the membrane, a decrease in the plasticity and stability of erythrocytes is observed.

The creative ability of erythrocytes is associated with their ability to transport various substances and carry out intercellular interactions.

Aggregation (clumping) of erythrocytes is associated with a slowdown in blood flow and an increase in blood viscosity. With rapid aggregation, "coin columns" are formed - false aggregates that break up into full-fledged cells. With prolonged disturbance of blood flow, true aggregates (blood sludge, sludge phenomenon) appear, causing the formation of a microthrombus.

"Coin columns" of erythrocytes. Linear or branched chains of erythrocytes - formations of "coin bundles". Under normal conditions, this phenomenon is most often observed in horses, but this process can also be observed in most animals with inflammatory diseases. horse blood smear; 50 x lens. Intercellular adhesion of erythrocytes. The formation of "coin columns" and agglutination.

Osmotic properties of erythrocytes. Hemolysis The ability of erythrocytes to withstand various damaging effects is called resistance (resistance) of erythrocytes. The resistance of erythrocytes is determined in relation to solutions of sodium chloride of various concentrations, i.e., their osmotic resistance. Under normal conditions, erythrocytes can withstand a decrease in Na concentration. Cl up to 0.6 -0.4%, not destroyed.

In hypertonic solutions (the concentration of Na. Cl is more than 0.98 -1%), erythrocytes lose water and shrink. At lower concentrations of Na. Cl (hypotonic solutions) erythrocytes are destroyed, and hemoglobin is released into the plasma. In agricultural animals, the erythrocytes of small cattle and pigs have the least resistance, the highest - birds, fish. In summer, the resistance of erythrocytes in animals increases.

The destruction of the erythrocyte membrane and the release of hemoglobin from them is called hemolysis. Types of hemolysis: chemical: the shell of erythrocytes is destroyed by chemicals; mechanical: the shell of erythrocytes is destroyed by strong shaking; temperature: the shell of erythrocytes is destroyed under the influence of high and low temperatures;

radiation: the shell of erythrocytes is destroyed by the action of X-rays and UV rays; osmotic: destruction of red blood cells in water or hypotonic solutions; biological: the shell of erythrocytes is destroyed by transfusion of incompatible blood, bites of poisonous snakes, insects.

In the body, hemolysis constantly occurs in small quantities when old red blood cells die. Red blood cells are destroyed in the spleen ("erythrocyte graveyard"), liver, red bone marrow; the released hemoglobin is absorbed by the cells of these organs, and it is absent in the circulating blood plasma.

Rate (reaction) of erythrocyte sedimentation. The ability to settle is due to the specific gravity of the cells, which is higher than that of blood plasma. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR; ROE) characterizes the suspension properties of blood; normally, it is low, due to the surface potential of the membrane and the presence of albumin fraction proteins.

ESR depends on the species, sex, age, physiological state of animals and on changes in the physicochemical properties of blood. ESR of animals increases in the following sequence: MRS< КРС < птица < свиньи < лошади

ESR of healthy animals (mm / h): MRS - 0.5 -1.5 Dogs - 2 -6 Cattle - 0.5 -1.0 Pigs - 2 -9 Poultry - 2 -3 Horses - 40 -

The acceleration of erythrocyte sedimentation is facilitated by globulins, fibrinogen, mucopolysaccharides, the content of which increases with many inflammatory processes, infections, malignant tumors, kidney diseases, and other pathologies. ESR increases greatly during pregnancy. ESR slowdown is noted with diarrhea, profuse sweating, physical activity, polyuria (increased urination), jaundice, intestinal obstruction (ileus).

Destruction - the destruction of erythrocytes as a result of physiological aging (the average life span of erythrocytes is 100-120 days); characterized by: a gradual decrease in the content of lipids and water in the membrane; increased yield of N a+ and K+ ions; the predominance of metabolic changes; deterioration in the ability to restore methemoglobin to hemoglobin; decrease in osmotic resistance, leading to hemolysis.

Hemoglobin and its compounds. Hemoglobin is a complex protein (chromoprotein), thanks to which erythrocytes perform a respiratory function and support p. H blood.

Hemoglobin consists of two components: globin protein (96%); iron-containing gem (4%).

Globin is an albumin-type protein. In different animal species, it differs in amino acid composition, which determines the differences in the properties of hemoglobin.

Heme complex compound of porphyrin with iron (unstable compound). The heme structure is identical for hemoglobin in all animal species.

The content of Hb (g / l) in the blood of agricultural animals is: Cattle 80 -150 Horse 110 -170 MRS 80 -160 Pigs 100 -180 Dog 130 -19 0 Cat 90 -

In the process of oxygen transfer, hemoglobin changes its shape. In this case, the valence of iron, to which oxygen is attached, does not change, i.e., iron remains divalent. The reaction of oxygen binding with hemoglobin is called oxygenation; the opposite process is called deoxygenation.

The main compounds of hemoglobin: I. PHYSIOLOGICAL: oxyhemoglobin (KH b 02) - connection with oxygen; carbohemoglobin (C 0 2 MH 2 H b) is a compound with carbon dioxide; reduced (reduced) hemoglobin - hemoglobin that gave up oxygen; deoxyhemoglobin (H + H b) is a compound with hydrogen ions.

II. PATHOLOGICAL: carboxyhemoglobin (H b CO) is a stable compound with carbon monoxide; methemoglobin (Me t H b) - oxidation of iron to a trivalent state; glycosylated hemoglobin is a compound with glucose.

Types of hemoglobin: There are several forms of hemoglobin that change during ontogenesis and differ in the structure of the protein part - globin (H b A, H b. F, H b P).

Initially, the embryo has embryonic (primitive) hemoglobin - H b P (the first months of intrauterine development). Then the fetus appears; fetal hemoglobin (fetal hemoglobin) - H b. F, which by the time of birth is replaced by definitive hemoglobin (adult hemoglobin) - H b A.

Color indicator: In clinical conditions, it is customary to calculate the degree of saturation of red blood cells with hemoglobin. This is the so-called. color index (CPU). CP is important for diagnosing anemia of various etiologies.

The color indicator is the percentage of hemoglobin content to the number of red blood cells per unit volume of blood (1 mm 3).

Normally, the CPU is equal to 1 or close to it. Such erythrocytes are called normochromic. When the CP is 0.8 and below, erythrocytes are poorly saturated with hemoglobin and are called hypochromic. When the CP is above 1, the erythrocytes are called hyperchromic.

Oxygen capacity is the maximum amount of oxygen that can be bound by 100 ml of blood during the conversion of hemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin.

Myoglobin In the skeletal and cardiac muscles of animals is muscle hemoglobin - myoglobin. Due to its lower density than that of hemoglobin, its affinity for oxygen sharply increases. Therefore, myoglobin is exceptionally adapted to deposition of oxygen.

This is important for the supply of oxygen to muscles that work for a long time: the muscles of the wings of birds, the muscles of the limbs of warm-blooded animals, the chewing muscles, and the heart muscle.

Myoglobin plays an important role in the supply of oxygen to working muscles: it stores oxygen during muscle relaxation and releases it during contraction. There is a lot of myoglobin in animals that are under water for a long time, as well as in diving birds. Under the influence of loads, the content of myoglobin increases. Myoglobin is the red color of muscles. There is no myoglobin in the pectoral muscles of chickens - white meat.

Physiology of leukocytes Leukocytes (from GREEK λευκως - white and kýtos - cell, white blood cells) are a heterogeneous group of blood cells that differ in appearance and functions, distinguished by the absence of independent coloration and the presence of a nucleus.

The collection of mature and immature white blood cells (leukocytes) is called a leukone. More than half of the leukocytes are located outside the vessels (in the intercellular space and bone marrow) due to the presence of a number of physiological features.

Properties of leukocytes: 1. Amoeba mobility; 2. Migration and diapidesis (the ability to penetrate the wall of intact vessels); 3. Phagocytosis (the ability to absorb and digest foreign agents).

Functions of leukocytes: The protective function is associated with the bactericidal and antitoxic action of agranulocytes, participation in the processes of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. The destructive effect is associated with the phagocytic activity of cells. Regenerative activity is associated with the processes of cell growth, differentiation, tissue regeneration, promotes wound healing. The enzymatic function is associated with the presence of a number of enzymes - (protease, peptidase, lipase, diastase, deoxyribonuclease). Leukocytes are destroyed in the mucous membrane of the digestive tract, as well as in the reticular tissue.

The total number of leukocytes in the peripheral blood is much less than that of erythrocytes. In animals, it is approximately 0.1-0.2%, in birds - about 0.5-1.0% of the number of erythrocytes: Cattle 6-10 thousand / μl Horse 7-12 thousand / μl MRS 6-11 thousand / µl Pig 8 -16 thousand/µl

There are several types of leukocytes that differ from each other in size, the presence or absence of granularity in the cytoplasm, the shape of the nucleus, and other features.

CLASSIFICATION OF LEUKOCYTES GRANULAR (GRANULOCYTES): the presence of granularity in the cytoplasm Basophils (stained with basic dyes) Eosinophils (stained with acidic dyes) Neutrophils (stained with basic and acidic dyes): Metamyelocytes (young) Band-nuclear Segmentonuclear NON-GRAIN (AGRANULOCYTES): no granularity in the cytoplasm Lymphocytes

Neutrophils The main function is phagocytosis - the absorption of foreign organisms (eg bacteria) or their parts. Neutrophils also secrete substances that have a bactericidal effect.

Eosinophils are capable of active movement, phagocytosis, as well as the capture and release of histamine, which makes these cells integral participants in inflammatory-allergic reactions.

Basophils are involved in the formation of allergic reactions of the immediate type. Basophils that have left the bloodstream into tissues are mast cells. Mast cells contain a large amount of histamine, which, by causing swelling, helps to limit the spread of infection and toxins. Secrete heparin.

Monocytes in tissues turn into macrophages. As macrophages, they participate in phagocytosis in immune reactions (process and present antigens to lymphocytes)

Lymphocytes T-lymphocytes are able to destroy bacteria, tumor cells, and also influence the activity of B-lymphocytes, which in turn are the main cells responsible for humoral immunity, that is, the production of antibodies.

Leukocytes Granular (granulocytes) Non-granular (agranulocytes) Neutrophils Basophils Eosinophils Lymphocytes Monocytes The percentage of leukocytes in the peripheral blood is called the leukocyte formula (leukogram, leukogram). The leukogram has specific differences and changes under various pathological conditions.

An increase in the number of leukocytes per unit volume of blood is called leukocytosis, leukemia; decrease - leukopenia.

An increase in the number of leukocytes: physiological leukocytosis (redistributive, neurohumoral); pathological (reactive, true); – absolute; - relative.

Physiological leukocytosis occurs as a result of the redistribution of blood in the vessels, the release of leukocytes from the depot; have a physiological origin, are short-lived, are observed under certain conditions.

myogenic leukocytosis - during pregnancy (especially in the later stages), during childbirth, with muscle tension; static leukocytosis - with a rapid transition from a vertical to a horizontal position; digestive leukocytosis - 2-3 hours after eating (in monogastric animals); emotional leukocytosis - with mental arousal, stress (associated with the release of adrenaline and its direct effect on the depot).

Pathological leukocytosis occurs when the bone marrow is irritated by a pathological agent, increased leukopoiesis, and is characterized by the appearance of young forms of leukocytes in the blood.

Types of pathological leukocytosis: infectious, observed in many infectious diseases, inflammatory processes; traumatic, with shock, after surgery, traumatic brain injury; toxic, in case of poisoning with arsenic, mercury, carbon monoxide, tissue decay, necrosis; medication, taking certain medications (glucocorticoids, antipyretics, painkillers); post-hemorrhagic, after heavy bleeding.

Relative leukocytosis - an increase in the number of one type of leukocytes without changing their total number per unit of blood volume: neutrophilia; eosinophilia; basophilia; lymphocytosis; monocytosis.

Decrease in the number of leukocytes: absolute leukopenia, with a decrease in the number of all leukocytes; relative, with a decrease in certain types of leukocytes: neutropenia; eosinopenia; lymphopenia; monocytopenia; agranulocytosis. It is difficult to take into account the decrease in the number of basophils due to their small amount in the blood (the norm is 0 -1%)

Types of leukopenia: Temporary (redistributive), when lymphocytes are collected in a depot (shock); Permanent (true) associated with inhibition of leukopoiesis, increased destruction of leukocytes; Infectious-toxic (bacterial and viral infections, intoxication); Organic (ionizing radiation, tumor processes); Autoimmune (hypo-, aplastic anemia, repeated blood transfusion, hemotherapy); Deficiency (protein and amino acid starvation, hypovitaminosis)

Consequences: the main consequence of leukopenia is a weakening of the body's reactivity, caused by a decrease in the phagocytic activity of neutrophilic granulocytes and the antibody-forming function of lymphocytes. This leads to an increase in the frequency of infectious and neoplastic diseases.

Platelets (platelets) are flat cells of irregular round shape with a diameter of 2-5 microns. Peripheral blood platelets are a fragment of a megakaryocyte cell, which still in the bone marrow breaks up into 3000-4000 small oval-shaped particles - platelets. The platelet lacks a nucleus and most subcellular structures.

Platelets circulating in the blood have an oval or round shape, a smooth surface, activated platelets have a stellate shape and filiform processes - pseudopodia. Stages of platelet contact activation: A - inactive platelet (discocyte, plate); B - platelets in the reversible stage of contact activation (spherical forms with pseudopodia); B - platelet in the irreversible stage of adhesion (flattened form without internal content - "platelet shadow")

Platelet properties: amoeboid mobility; fast destructibility; ability to phagocytosis; the ability to adhere (stick to a foreign surface); the ability to aggregate (stick together).

Functions of platelets: The trophic function is to provide the vascular wall with nutrients, due to which the vessels become more elastic. The dynamic function consists in the processes of adhesion and aggregation of platelets in case of damage to the vascular wall. The regulation of vascular tone is carried out due to the presence of serotonin and histamine mediators in the granules, which affect the tone and permeability of capillaries, thereby determining the state of histohematic barriers. Participation in the processes of blood coagulation is ensured by the content of lamellar factors in the granules (PF - 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .), polishing hemostasis.

Platelet count Cattle 450 thousand/µl Horse 350 thousand/µl MRS 350 thousand/µl Pig 210 thousand/µl

An increase in the number of platelets (thrombocytosis) is observed during heavy muscular work, digestion, during pregnancy and some pathological conditions.

A decrease in the number of platelets (thrombocytopenia) is noted in acute infectious diseases, shock conditions.

Physiology of the functioning of the hemostasis system. Hemostasis is a complex biological system that ensures, on the one hand, the preservation of blood in the bloodstream in a liquid state of aggregation, and, on the other hand, stops bleeding and prevents blood loss from damage to blood vessels.

There are three links in the coagulation system of hemostasis: Hemostasis Coagulation system Vascular link Cellular (platelet-leukocyte) link Fibrin (plasma-coagulation) link

The main provisions of the modern theory of blood coagulation were developed by A. Schmidt in 1872. According to modern concepts, 2 mechanisms are involved in stopping bleeding: vascular-platelet (primary) hemostasis; plasma coagulation (secondary) hemostasis.

Vascular-platelet hemostasis Primary, microcirculatory hemostasis ensures that bleeding stops in small vessels with low blood pressure and small lumen by forming a platelet plug.

Includes several stages: short-term vasospasm (reflex stimulation of the smooth muscles of the vessel from the sympathetic nervous system); activation of endothelial cells; adhesion of platelets to the wound surface; activation of adherent platelets and release reactions; platelet aggregation; retraction (compaction) of a platelet (white) thrombus.

Secondary, or coagulation, hemostasis is a chain enzymatic process in which the activation of plasma coagulation factors and the formation of their complexes occur sequentially.

Essence - the transition of soluble blood protein fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin, resulting in the formation of a strong fibrin (red) thrombus.

Coagulation (secondary) hemostasis occurs within a few minutes and takes place in case of injury to large vessels, when, after activation of vascular-platelet hemostasis, the process of enzymatic blood coagulation begins.

Clotting factors are indicated by Roman numerals as they are discovered. Factor activation is indicated by the addition of the letter "a": I - Ia To stop bleeding, 10-15% of the normal concentration of most factors is sufficient, for example, II, V - XI.

Plasma coagulation factors I - fibrinogen (I a fibrin) II - prothrombin (II a thrombin) III - tissue thromboplastin IV - Ca 2+ V - proaccelerin (Va - accelerin) VI - excluded from the classification = activated factor Va, VII - proconvertin VIII - antihemophilic globulin A (Willebrand factor) IX - antihemophilic globulin B (Christmas factor) X - Stuart-Prauer factor XI - plasma precursor of thromboplastin, or antihemophilic factor C (Rosenthal factor) XII - contact factor (Hageman) XIII - fibrin stabilizing factor XIV - Fletcher's prekallikrein factor () XV - Fitzgerald factor (high molecular weight kininogen)

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Phases of coagulation hemostasis Phase I - formation of prothrombinase - internal (slow) path (5 - 8 min) - external (fast) path (5 - 10 s) Phase II - formation of thrombin (IIa) (2 - 5 s) Phase III - formation fibrin thrombus (2 - 5 s): Postcoagulation phase (about 70 min) - thrombus retraction

Anticoagulation system The liquid state of the blood is maintained due to its movement (reducing the concentration of reagents), adsorption of clotting factors by the endothelium and due to natural anticoagulants.

Primary anticoagulants are present in the blood before clotting begins: antithrombin III heparin 1-antitrypsin protein C thrombomodulin antithromboplastins

Secondary anticoagulants are formed in the process of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis: atithrombin I is a fibrin that adsorbs and inactivates thrombin, factors Va, Xa; antithrombin VI are fibrinolysis products that block fibrinogen and fibrin monomer, thrombin and factor XIa.

Fibrinolytic system of hemostasis Fibrinolysis (prevents the formation and lysis of fibrin thrombus formed in the process of permanent local hemostasis) can be carried out in two ways: with the participation of plasmin without the participation of plasmin.

Non-plasmin variant of fibrinolysis Non-plasmin variant of fibrinolysis is carried out by fibrinolytic proteases of leukocytes, platelets, erythrocytes and antithrombin III in combination with heparin, which can directly cleave fibrin.

Determination of the clotting time of unstabilized whole blood A needle without a syringe is punctured into a vein. The first drops of blood are released onto a cotton swab and 1 ml of blood is collected in 2 dry test tubes. Turning on the stopwatch, put the test tubes in a water bath at a temperature of 37°C. After 2-3 minutes, and then every 30 seconds, the tubes are slightly tilted, determining the moment when the blood clots. After determining the time of formation of a blood clot in each of the test tubes, calculate the average result.

In 1900, the Austrian researcher Karl Landsteiner, mixing erythrocytes with normal blood serum of different people, found that with some combinations of serum and erythrocytes of different people, agglutination (gluing and falling into a cage) of erythrocytes is observed, while others do not.

Antigens are substances that carry signs of genetically alien information. Isoantigens (intraspecific antigens) are antigens that originate from one species of organisms, but are genetically alien to each individual. Antibodies are immunoglobulins that are formed when an antigen is introduced into the body.

Blood grouping is determined by isoantigens, a person has more than 200 of them. They are combined into group antigenic systems, their carriers are erythrocytes. There are no isoantigens in the blood plasma of newborns. They are formed during the first year of life under the influence of substances supplied with food, as well as produced by the intestinal microflora, to those antigens that are not in its own erythrocytes.

Isoantigens are inherited, constant throughout life, do not change under the influence of external and internal factors.

The doctrine of blood groups is based on intraspecific biological differences in the blood of humans and animals. These differences are manifested in the presence of specific proteins agglutinogens/isoantigens (on the surface of erythrocytes) and agglutinins (in blood plasma). Depending on the combination of erythrocyte agglutinogens and plasma agglutinins, blood is divided into groups.

The main agglutinogens of human erythrocytes are agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B, plasma agglutinins are agglutinin ά and agglutinin β.

Agglutinogens and agglutinins of the same name (A and ά, B and β) are not found in the blood of the same organism. This would lead to an agglutination reaction (gluing and destruction of red blood cells) - an immune conflict.

There are four combinations of agglutinogens and agglutinins and, accordingly, four blood groups, which are combined into the ABO system.

Approximately 35% of the population of central Europe has group I (0), more than 35% - group II (A), 20% - III (B), about 8% - IV (AB) group. In 90% of the indigenous people of North America, belonging to the I (0) group was found; more than 20% of the population of Central Asia have III (B) blood group.

People with blood group I were previously considered universal donors, i.e. their blood could be transfused to all persons without exception. However, in people with blood group I, immune anti-A and anti-B agglutinins were found in a fairly significant percentage. Transfusion of such blood can lead to serious consequences and even death. These data served as the basis for the transfusion of only single-group blood.

Rhesus factor The Rh antigenic system was discovered in 1940 by K. Landsteiner and A. Wiener. They found antigens in the erythrocytes of monkeys (rhesus monkeys), for which, when they were introduced into the body of rabbits, corresponding antibodies were produced. This antigen is called the Rh factor.

Currently, six varieties of antigens of the Rhesus system have been described. The most important are Rh. O(D), Rh’(C), Rh”(E). The presence of at least one of the three antigens indicates that the blood is Rh-positive (Rh+).

Rh antigens are found in the blood of 85% of white people. In some Negroids, the Rh factor is found in 100%. In the natives of Australia (not a single antigen of the Rhesus system was detected.

Blood containing the Rh factor is called Rh-positive (Rh+). Blood in which the Rh factor is absent is called Rh-negative (Rh-). The Rh factor is inherited. The peculiarity of the Rh system is that it does not have natural antibodies, they are immune and are formed after sensitization - contact of Rh- blood with Rh +.

During the primary transfusion of Rh- to a person, Rh + blood, the Rh conflict does not develop, because there are no natural anti-Rh agglutinins (antibodies) in the recipient's blood. An immunological conflict in the Rh antigenic system occurs during repeated transfusion of Rh-blood to a Rh+ person, in cases of pregnancy, when the woman is Rh-, and the fetus is Rh+.

In addition to antigens of the ABO system and the Rh factor, other agglutinins were found on the erythrocyte membrane, which determine the blood groups in this system. There are more than 400 such antigens, but the ABO system and the Rh factor are of the greatest importance for the practice of blood transfusion.

Leukocytes also have antigens (more than 90). Of practical importance are histocompatibility antigens, which play an important role in transplantation immunity.

Blood groups of animals In the erythrocytes of agricultural animals, a large number of antigenic factors were found, which are denoted by capital Latin letters (A, B, C, etc.). There are few or no natural antibodies in the blood plasma. Antigens, the inheritance of which is interdependent, make up the system of blood groups.

In cattle, 100 antigenic factors are determined, which are combined into 12 systems, in pigs - 50 antigens, 14 systems, in sheep - 7 systems, in horses - 8 systems, in chickens - 14 systems. According to blood groups in animals, genetic links and the origin of animals are traced. Relationships of blood groups with the level of productivity and viability have been established.

Animal species Number of antigens Number of blood group systems Cattle > 100 12 Pigs > 70 16 Sheep 30 8 Horses 30 8 Buffaloes 15 7 Dogs 15 11 Chickens 60 14 Turkeys

Blood groups of dogs and cats The following blood groups occur in dogs: DEA 1. 1 *DEA 1. 2 *DEA 3 DEA 4 DEA 5 DEA 6 *DEA 7 DEA 8 * are the most immunogenic blood types.

There are 3 blood groups in cats: A (II), B (III) and AB (IV). The most common is group A. Group B is not so common (more often in Abyssinian, Burmese, Persian, Somali cats, Scottish Folds, Exotics, British, Cornish Rex and Devon Rex). Group AB is extremely rare.

Blood transfusion (hemotransfusion) Blood transfusion is the most effective remedy for heavy blood loss. It is also used for malignant anemia, toxicosis, and some infectious diseases.

Under the influence of the transfused blood in the body of the recipient: blood pressure levels off; the respiratory function of the blood is restored; blood formation is enhanced; blood clotting increases; the general vitality increases.

In veterinary practice, blood transfusion is more often used to treat horses and small domestic animals. For transfusion use compatible blood from an animal of the same species. Transfusion of incompatible blood can cause transfusion shock (agglutination and hemolysis of red blood cells) and death of the animal.

Whole blood is transfused only in cases where blood loss exceeds 25% of the total volume. If the total blood loss is less than 25% of the total volume, plasma substitutes (colloidal solutions) are administered.