MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

University of Economics and Management

Faculty of Economics

Department of Accounting and Audit

COURSE WORK

by discipline

"Management Accounting"

Topic: "Management accounting and analysis of management problems"

Completed by: student

Course ________ department

groups ______

Scientific director

____________________________

____________________________

The work was handed over "____"__________ _____.

Checked and approved for protection "___"__________ _____ g.

The defense took place "_____"__________ _____.

Grade _______________________

Simferopol, 2007

INTRODUCTION.. 3

Section 1. Management accounting, essence, goals and objectives scope of application 5

The essence of management accounting and the main differences from financial accounting 5

1.2. Systems and types of management accounting. 13

Conclusions on the first section. 24

Section 2. Main directions of analysis in management accounting. 26

2.1. Cost analysis. 26

2.2. Analysis by responsibility centers. thirty

2.3. Direct costing 37

2.4. Approaches to effective management accounting in an organization 44

Conclusions on the second section. 51

CONCLUSION... 53

Bibliography... 56

APPENDIX 1. 57

Appendix 2. 58

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of the study of management accounting and the analysis of management problems using this accounting tool is undeniable. Today everyone understands that enterprise management is a combination of various production and non-production factors, actions and opportunities for entrepreneurial activity, the ultimate goal of which is to make a profit, i.e. excess of income over expenses. Management is impossible without information or a set of information about the state of the managed system, control actions and the external environment. Management accounting is a field of knowledge and field of activity related to the formation and use of economic information for management within an economic entity (enterprise, firm, bank, etc.). Its purpose is to help managers (managers) make economically sound decisions.

The subject of research in the course work is the subject of management accounting. The direct object of the study is management accounting and analysis of management problems performed using a management accounting system.

The purpose of the work is to characterize the object in accordance with the subject based on the study of literary sources. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are expected to be solved:

Consider the essence of management accounting and the main differences from financial accounting, explore the management accounting system and determine development trends;

Summarize the results of the study in the form of conclusions.

The main methods used in the work are systematization, generalization, comparison, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. Systematization is a general scientific method with a wide range of applications. First of all, this method allows you to study elements based on the main factor connecting them. Generalization can be described as synthesis. This is one of the most crucial moments in any analysis, because here it is necessary to be able to separate the influence of typical factors from random ones. Induction and deduction are two complementary methods that connect the general and specific aspects of the phenomenon or process being studied. For example, analysis of the dependence of financial results on sales volumes presupposes knowledge of factors of such influence and the ability to determine the most significant of them in total terms. The induction method allows you to determine the quantitative characteristics of various indicators and draw a general conclusion for each indicator and their system. Deduction, which works in the opposite direction, i.e., from the general to the specific, can be applied when the overall result is doubtful or wary.

Structurally, the work consists of an introduction, two thematic sections, a conclusion (conclusions), a list of references and applications. The first chapter examines the theoretical and methodological foundations of management accounting, its content and system, its role in entrepreneurial activity and business related to production. The second section reveals the main areas of analysis used in management to solve management problems.

The main sources that served as the basis for the research in the work are the works of Adamov N., Drury K., Dsyatkina I.V. , Karpova T.P. , Murymov A. A.

Section 1. Management accounting, essence, goals and objectives scope of application

The essence of management accounting and the main differences from financial accounting

The increasing complexity of business and the need to make management decisions in a dynamic and difficult-to-predict environment have led to the process of transforming traditional accounting into a system for processing and analyzing financial information.

If the user of this system is the tax office, then we are talking about tax accounting. Since taxes are collected from the company by the state, tax accounting is regulated by legislative acts and instructions of the tax service.

Excessive tax pressure forces enterprises to evade taxes, which largely determines the formal and fictitious nature of the company’s tax reports. They mix real economic events with fictitious transactions, the sole purpose of which is to reduce taxes to the lowest possible level. If the users of the financial system are the founders of the enterprise, shareholders, investors and creditors, then the information is provided in accordance with the rules of financial accounting. In other words, financial accounting is a universal language through which stakeholders can obtain information about the financial position of an enterprise. In our country, the protection of the rights of shareholders and investors is in its infancy and financial accounting is largely formal in nature.

Enterprises are not interested in objective coverage of their activities in relation to external users. High incomes can attract the attention of tax authorities and criminal communities, so companies underestimate the amount of profit received in their financial reports.

In many ways, financial accounting duplicates tax accounting and does not reflect the real situation in the enterprise. The need to raise funds in financial markets forces enterprises to show part of their achievements in financial statements and use international accounting rules.

The only source that allows you to fully represent the activities of an enterprise is intra-company, or management, accounting. Users of the financial system in this case are company managers who are interested in obtaining the most reliable information.

The problem of development of management accounting in our country is the shortage of highly qualified personnel. Heads of the accounting service, as a rule, are well versed in the intricacies of tax accounting and begin to mechanically use its principles in the preparation of internal company reporting. The accountant will keep all operations of the company that will be hidden from the tax inspectorate in his head, not without reason believing that it is very difficult to fire such a head. As a result, instead of a clear and holistic picture of the financial component of the business, the manager will have on his desk a pile of unnecessary papers and fragmentary information, flavored with narrow professional accounting jargon. The management of the company will be carried out on a whim, which sooner or later will lead to bankruptcy or takeover by a stronger competitor.

In order for a business to develop and survive competition, the manager must have a complete and clear picture of the financial activities of the enterprise. And only management accounting can help him with this. One of the main functions of management accounting is to establish effective communications between various departments of the company, develop systems for effective motivation of employees, and organize control over the use of company resources and their safety. The most logical step for the effective creation of management accounting is the formation of a special structural unit, the rank of the head of which should not be lower than the status of chief accountant. The management accounting system will not be a priority, which will immediately affect the quality and real usefulness of the information prepared for the company’s management.

Management accounting will certainly increase the efficiency of the enterprise/organization, but this will inevitably entail changes in the practical work of the enterprise. All the main processes of production and economic activity of an enterprise: supply, production, sales and the management function coordinating them are directly related to the expenditure of labor, material and financial resources. These expenses can be considered justified if, as a result of their implementation, income is received that exceeds the costs incurred. Essentially, enterprise management is a combination of various production and non-production factors, actions and opportunities for entrepreneurial activity, the ultimate goal of which is to make a profit, i.e. excess of income over expenses.

Management is impossible without information or a set of information about the state of the managed system, control actions and the external environment. In this understanding, economic information acts as the basis for the processes of preparation, adoption and implementation of management decisions.

Economic information for the management of business organizations is generated in systems of planning, accounting and analysis of production and financial activities.

In general, the system for providing an enterprise with economic information can be represented as the following diagram (Fig. 1.1).

Fig.1.1. The relationship between financial and management accounting and economic analysis.

Financial accounting is designed to provide reporting information mainly to external users: shareholders and other owners, creditors, investors of the enterprise, its personnel, suppliers and customers, tax and statistical authorities of the state, public and trade union organizations.

Management accounting is a field of knowledge and field of activity related to the formation and use of economic information for management within an economic entity (enterprise, firm, bank, etc.). Its purpose is to help managers (managers) make economically sound decisions.

Information generated by the management accounting system must meet the following requirements: reliability; completeness; relevance; integrity; understandability; timeliness; regularity.

Similar requirements apply to financial accounting information. However, their content and significance may vary

Management accounting basically uses the same principles as financial accounting and is a logical consequence of the development of accounting and its evolution.

The relationship between accounting, production and management accounting can be presented in the form of the following diagram (Fig. 1.2).

Fig.1.2. The relationship between accounting, production and management accounting.

From the above diagram it is clear that management accounting consists of two components: production accounting, intended for internal (in-plant, as they said before) management of production and sales of products, and that part of financial accounting, which serves to manage financial activities directly in the organization. This does not mean that when organizing management accounting and creating its system, it is necessary to combine both of these functions. They can exist separately: production accounting keeps records of the costs and results of production and sales, and financial accounting, in addition to maintaining accounting records, drawing up a balance sheet and other forms of reporting, participates in the management of financial transactions and flows of funds and related activities. In small organizations, the functions of management and financial accounting should be combined into a single service.

The main principle of management accounting is its focus on meeting the information needs of management, solving the problems of intra-company management of various levels of rights and responsibilities. At the same time, information must precede decisions made. Management accounting data is needed primarily by those who manage the expenditure of resources or carry out these expenditures themselves. Therefore, one of the principles of accounting for management is a focus on grouping costs and results of activities by in-plant, intra-company divisions of the enterprise. Having knowledge of management accounting information, top-level managers can monitor all financial and economic activities of the enterprise, i.e. monitor ongoing processes in real time, promptly monitor work results, take timely measures to eliminate shortcomings leading to higher costs and reduced profitability of production and sales.

For management accounting, it is important not only to calculate the absolute value of indicators, but, above all, deviations from specified performance parameters, and focus on identifying factors influencing deviations. Their identification underlies control by deviations, in which corrective action on the controlled object is carried out on the basis of information about deviations from predetermined parameters of the state or behavior of the object.

The most significant differences between financial and management accounting are as follows (Fig. 1.3)

Ultimately, management accounting, unlike accounting, does not imply actual accounting of the amount of property, costs and income, the state of settlements and obligations and conditions affecting the production, economic and financial activities of the organization. Its purpose is to provide information for making decisions on managing the economy of an enterprise and verify the effectiveness of the implementation of decisions made.

Fig.1.3. Comparative characteristics of financial and management accounting.

Management accounting is an integral part of the enterprise management system. It is designed to provide the generation of information necessary for:

monitoring the efficiency of the current activities of the organization as a whole and in the context of its individual divisions, types of activities, market sectors;

planning future strategy and tactics for carrying out commercial activities in general and individual business operations, optimizing the use of material, labor and financial resources of the organization;

measuring and assessing business efficiency in general and by division of the organization, identifying the degree of profitability of certain types of products, works, services, sectors and market segments;

adjusting control influences on the progress of production and sales of products, goods and services, reducing subjectivity in the decision-making process at all levels of management.

Based on this, the main objectives of the organization of management accounting are orientation towards achieving a predetermined goal of entrepreneurship, the need to provide alternative options for solving a given problem, participation in the selection of the optimal option and in the calculation of normative parameters for its implementation, orientation towards identifying deviations from the specified execution parameters, interpretation of the identified deviations and their analysis. In addition, it is necessary to observe the general principles of generating information for management: the principle of advancing data for making management decisions and the principle of responsibility for its consequences. Correctly assessing upcoming expenses and income is much more important than noting lost opportunities. At the same time, if there is no responsibility for business results at all levels of management, maintaining management accounting makes no sense.

Over time, the range of management accounting tasks has expanded significantly. Currently, in addition to the above purposes, in countries with developed market economies, the following accounting tasks for management are distinguished:

· cost recording and reporting, including categorizing, summarizing, presenting and interpreting cost data to interested users;

· determination and assessment of costs for specific products, services or places where costs are generated, responsibility centers;

· cost management and cost analysis, i.e. presentation of cost data in the form of information suitable for management planning and control.

Of the indicated accounting functions, the first two functions are traditional for our production accounting, and the last is an innovation.

Modern management accounting includes the functions of forecasting, standardization, planning, operational accounting and control. Forecasting the main performance indicators of an enterprise specifies its goals for a given period of time and contributes to their achievement. It is based on a spatiotemporal study of the state of the market, its structure and factors influencing the needs for specific products and services, the study of trends in their development, and an analysis of the financial capabilities of buyers. The basis is the sales forecast as a necessary element of planning the production and sale of goods.

1.2. Systems and types of management accounting

Any system is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which form a certain integrity of unity. In the accounting system, such elements are economic assets, sources of their formation and receipts, economic processes and their results, i.e. objects of financial accounting. The system-forming features here include the possibility of assessing the organization’s activities in a single cost meter, the correspondence of the model of accounting tasks to the circulation of economic assets, the use of a single, interconnected chart of accounts, the retrospective nature and legal validity of its data.

Elements of the management accounting system are also its objects and the relationship between them. Basically, they are the same as in accounting, but are considered not from the standpoint of stating and analyzing the fact of the availability and movement of funds, sources of their formation, changes under the influence of business transactions, but from the standpoint of the use of resource consumption, the ratio of costs and results obtained. In addition to traditional indicators for financial accounting, the objects of management accounting are additional indicators of added and discounted value, marginal profit, inflow and outflow of funds, amounts and coverage rates and their derivatives.

According to the intended purpose, management accounting systems can be divided into strategic accounting for top management of enterprises, companies, firms and current accounting for internal management. In both cases, management accounting is intended to teach managers to evaluate their capabilities and effectively control the resources consumed in pursuing those capabilities.

Strategic accounting is forward-looking. Not a single economic organization can count on constant and ever-increasing success of its activities over many years. Moreover, if it does not develop, sooner or later it will face financial collapse. Strategic accounting information and the use of its data should enable decisions to be made that prevent this from happening.

The management function, or the reaction of management to management accounting data, consists of a set of measures to achieve the set goal, evaluate the performance of various divisions of the enterprise, and develop corrective actions in case of deviation from the norms and standards of costs, production volume and sales.

Operational accounting ensures the identification of bottlenecks in the activities of the enterprise, in its production and sales capabilities, generates information for managing the range of products and goods, costs and results of production and sales activities, helps in determining supply prices and participation in the market, provides other information for making operational decisions. management decisions.

The basis of operational management accounting is the calculation of production and sales costs as a set of variables, depending on the volume of activity, expenses and costs for organizing and managing an enterprise, which are predominantly constant, depending on the duration of the reporting period. This is the so-called reduced cost or variable cost accounting system (direct cost, variable cost, marginal cost accounting).

Operational accounting for management partially performs the functions of internal control of the economic efficiency of the enterprise and its divisions, the profitability of production and sales of individual products, goods and services.

An integral part of this type of accounting is the operational diagnostics of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise. It monitors and analyzes the financial condition of organizations, their break-even level, assesses risks and develops recommendations for risk management.

Information for internal management is subject to a number of specific requirements that differ from the requirements for information for financial accounting and accounting information for external users. She must be :

· operational, formed according to the principle “the faster, the better”;

· target, i.e. aimed at solving specific management problems;

· targeted - oriented towards a specific consumer - manager and the tasks he solves;

· sufficient - management accounting information should not be redundant, but quite sufficient for making appropriate decisions;

· economical to obtain and use;

· flexible, adapted to the possibilities of changes in business.

Reporting and information systems for management act as means of communication and perform the most important task - transferring data from planning and control systems to those levels of management that are responsible for making decisions on certain issues. Reliable, clear and concise, complete and timely information, structured both by levels of responsibility and degree of complexity of decision-making, must be presented for their consideration.

Improving the philosophy of management accounting. Features of the development of management accounting in Ukraine.

Management accounting has Western roots and is a new thing in our country. But in the West, this area of ​​practical knowledge has evolved for quite a long time.

So, in the 1980s. Criticisms of management accounting practices began to appear in professional and academic literature. The most thorough criticism comes from Robert Kaplan of Harvard Business School. In a number of publications, he questioned the relevance of modern management accounting practice.

In 1987, he co-authored the book Lost Significance: The Rise and Fall of Management Accounting with Thomas Johnson. The book has become widely known, in particular, thanks to the authors’ statement that firms still use management accounting practices, the “just-in-time” principle was developed more than 30 years ago and therefore has become outdated in the modern era of competition and production development. Although opinions are divided on the need for changes in management accounting, many experts firmly believe that fundamental changes are required.

The principal criticisms of modern management accounting practice are as follows:

· traditional management accounting does not meet the requirements of the modern level of production development and increased competition.

· Traditional cost accounting systems provide misleading information that is unsuitable for decision making.

· the practice of management accounting loses its independence, following the requirements of financial accounting, and acquires an auxiliary character.

· management accounting focuses almost entirely on the internal aspects of a company's activities and does not pay attention to the business environment in which the company operates.

Let's look at these comments in more detail.

Inability to respond to changes in the level of production development and increased competition. In the 1980s Advanced industrial technology (AIT) and just-in-time production methods have brought significant changes to the production processes of many organizations. Companies have realized that successfully competing against competitors requires producing improved, high-quality products at low cost and providing superior customer service. Many companies have responded to these competitive demands by investing in PMT, adopting a just-in-time manufacturing philosophy, and focusing on goals such as high quality, product innovation, on-time delivery, and flexibility in customer service.

These changes have led to many problems, for example: how to evaluate the effectiveness of investments in APP, how to calculate the cost of a product, how to change the control system and performance indicators of the company so that they stimulate managers to achieve the company's new strategic goals in the field of production and competition. Some organizations argued that their cost accounting systems hindered rather than facilitated changes in their operations. As a result, a number of specialists argued that management accounting needed a revolution that would reflect the revolution in production.

The basic requirement of production in a market economy is expressed by the concept of just-in-time, which is to produce the right components at the right time and only when they are required. A survey conducted by K. Drury showed that 84% of surveyed companies value inventories based on full cost division calculations to calculate monthly profits for internal financial reporting purposes. If a costing system with full cost allocation is used to estimate inventories, profit center managers can increase profits by increasing inventories. This causes the profit measurement system to operate in the opposite direction to that of the just-in-time philosophy. Reports on the execution of estimates arrive too late, so they cannot be used to control production radios. Typically these reports are compiled on a monthly or weekly basis. However, industrial companies that have implemented “on-time” production, as a rule, have short production cycles and therefore information about problems arising in production should be received immediately, or at least daily. Companies with a JIT philosophy would like to focus on metrics that reflect quality and reliability of production rather than on purchase price variances that distract attention from key metrics. These indicators should combine all the factors important for purchasing activities, in particular the quality and reliability of suppliers, and not just prices. Some experts argue that the concept of setting standards is incompatible with the continuous improvement principle of the just-in-time philosophy. When standards are established, they seem to replace the desire for continuous improvement with the desire to achieve precisely these standard indicators. The dynamics of performance indicators over different periods of time provides useful feedback in the form of information about the rate of change in the functioning of production.

Management accounting reports have traditionally tended to focus on costs. However, if you do not pay due attention to non-financial indicators, which are so important for successfully confronting competition in the business environment, then company managers and personnel will strive to focus efforts only on improving cost indicators, and therefore ignore the equally important marketing, management and strategic aspects of activity companies.

Limitations of traditional manufacturing costing systems. At the end of the 1980s. Manufacturing cost measurement and profitability analysis have become increasingly popular. Full production costs are calculated for financial reporting purposes. Management accounting literature suggests that total production costs calculated using financial accounting principles are not suitable for decision making. It is argued that decisions should be made on the basis of an analysis of incremental (avoidable) costs. According to this approach, decisions such as starting a new product, discontinuing a product, and setting product prices should be based on examining only those incremental costs and revenues that are determined by the decision. This approach requires special studies if necessary. However, for complex, multi-dimensional real-world situations where companies produce a wide range of products, it may not be practical to uniquely assign relevant costs to each decision because the number of possibilities and options that a manager faces at any given time is many.

Based on a review of 150 cost accounting systems in the United States, Cooper argued that all companies used traditional full manufacturing costs of a product to make decisions. The disadvantages of traditional full production cost decision making have been discussed extensively in the works of Johnson and Kaplan. Traditional manufacturing costing methods were created decades ago when companies produced small quantities of products and the major factory costs were those of key production workers and basic materials. Overhead costs were low and therefore misstatements arising from failure to accurately attribute overhead costs to specific products were negligible. At the same time, processing costs were significant enough that it was difficult to justify more precise and complex methods of allocating overhead to products.

Currently, companies tend to produce a large range of products; Labor costs for key production workers represent a small portion of total costs, while overhead costs have become more important. Simplistic methods of allocating overhead costs to products based on the ever-decreasing labor costs of key production workers can no longer be justified, especially now that information processing costs are no longer a constraint on the implementation of more complex data processing systems. Moreover, intense competition in the global marketplace has created a need for more accurate information about the impact on company profitability of product mix decisions and whether product production starts or stops. Against this background, the method of cost accounting by function arose.

Transformation of management accounting (into an auxiliary tool for financial accounting). According to Johnson and Kaplan, management accounting has become a supporting tool for financial accounting. The argument is that production costs calculated for financial accounting purposes are also used for decision making. Such calculations involve arbitrary allocation of overhead costs to products and do not reflect the amount of resources consumed by specific products. Costs calculated based on financial accounting principles provide sufficient accuracy to allocate costs between cost of goods sold and cost of inventory, which is necessary for external financial reporting. But they distort the individual cost of a product through the mutual subsidization of production costs resulting from improper allocation of overhead costs. Therefore, strategic decisions are subject to financial reporting requirements.

Drury's research provides evidence to support Johnson and Kaplan's assertions that cost accounting systems primarily serve external financial reporting needs. When preparing monthly internal earnings reports, most companies rely on external reporting requirements and estimate inventory based on full cost allocation, although there are strong arguments for using marginal costing for internal earnings reporting. Almost all companies used the reduction of historical cost to make pricing decisions, while replacement cost should be used for management accounting.

Companies must make informed choices and provide sufficient reasons to approve financial reporting requirements as the basis for obtaining management accounting information. Management accounting information should not simply be a by-product of external financial reporting systems.

Lack of attention to the external environment in which the company operates. Management accounting has been criticized for its predilection for comparing company costs and revenues and for its lack of attention to the external conditions in which the company operates. Critics of management accounting argue that it is necessary to focus more attention on the prospects of the company's activities, introducing into the reporting indicators that characterize the company's sales markets and indicators that characterize its competitors. This externally oriented approach is known as strategic management.

In the USSR, which included Ukraine, the term “management accounting” was not used. A significant part of the indicators (financial and non-financial) of current internal reporting was based on operational rather than accounting data. Accounting was essentially financial accounting aimed at monitoring the preservation of socialist property and the implementation of state plans. At the same time, accounting data was also used for management in order to reduce costs and increase profitability. The development of market relations in Ukraine has led to an increase in the need for accounting information necessary for enterprise management. Therefore, the term management accounting appeared in the Law of Ukraine “On Accounting and Financial Reporting in Ukraine” adopted in 1999 as a synonym for intra-business accounting. This Law contains the following definition: “Intra-economic (managerial) accounting is a system for processing and preparing information about the activities of an enterprise for internal users in the process of enterprise management.” At the same time, Article 8 of the Law provides that the enterprise independently develops a system and forms of on-farm (managerial) accounting.

However, the feasibility and possibility of practical division of accounting into financial and managerial in Ukraine, Russia and other countries - former republics of the USSR is perceived ambiguously and is the subject of wide discussion. Fans of the division of accounting into financial and managerial (G. Chumachenko, V. Paliy, V. Ivashkevich, etc.) believe that such a division does not violate the unity of the accounting system, since we are not talking about a methodological division of accounting, but about organizational changes. Opponents of this division (Ya. Sokolov, B. Valuev, O. Borodkin, etc.) believe that accounting is the only and indivisible, and management accounting is expense accounting and cost calculation, which artificially try to separate individual, mostly young people, from accounting , specialists focused on Western traditions.

Enterprise management and other users of accounting information need timely, reliable and relevant information. If an enterprise has a need for certain information in addition to mandatory accounting, it can create such an information system and give it any name: “controlling”, “intra-business accounting”, “management accounting”, etc. This definition of accounting tasks makes it possible to talk about the need creating a global accounting system that should meet the information needs of both external and internal users (Fig. 1.4).

Collection Classification Transfer.

Fig.1.4. Global accounting system

Therefore, management accounting should be considered as an accounting subsystem that provides financial and non-financial information necessary for making decisions aimed at achieving the strategic goal of the enterprise.

Conclusions on the first section

1. The increasing complexity of business and the need to make management decisions in a dynamic and difficult-to-predict environment have led to the process of transforming traditional accounting into a system for processing and analyzing financial information. In order for a business to develop and withstand competition, the manager must have a complete and clear picture of the financial activities of the enterprise. Management is impossible without information or a set of information about the state of the managed system, control actions and the external environment. Management accounting is a field of knowledge and field of activity related to the formation and use of economic information for management within an economic entity (enterprise, firm, bank, etc.). Its goal is to help managers (managers) make economically sound decisions; the main objectives of the organization of management accounting are orientation towards achieving a predetermined goal of entrepreneurship, the need to provide alternative options for solving the problem, participation in the selection of the optimal option and in the calculation of its regulatory parameters execution, focus on identifying deviations from specified performance parameters, interpretation of identified deviations and their analysis.

2. According to the intended purpose, management accounting systems can be divided into strategic accounting for top management of enterprises, companies, firms and current accounting for internal management. An integral part of this type of accounting is the operational diagnostics of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise.

3. Management accounting has Western roots and is a new thing in our country. But in the West, this area of ​​practical knowledge has evolved for quite a long time.

Section 2. Main directions of analysis in management accounting

2.1. Cost Analysis

Cost is the use of a certain resource to achieve a certain goal. Costs are always associated with a specific object. Objects can be types of activities, branches and structural divisions, products and services produced, projects and programs.

Cost information is accumulated by the accounting system and then distributed among cost objects. Cost allocation can be direct when there is a clear relationship between the amount of resource spent and the amount of output produced.

For example, to produce 1 ton of gasoline, it is necessary to consume 1.5 tons of oil. Of course, in reality, more or less oil may be needed, depending on the technological scheme used, the efficiency of the equipment and the amount of theft, as well as the validity of the standards used at the enterprise. However, we can say with confidence that with the existing management, control and technology system at the enterprise, a very certain amount of oil will be required to produce a certain amount of gasoline. The cost of the oil used will be called direct plant costs.

The relationship between the result obtained and the resources used is not always direct and obvious. When an additional analytical procedure is needed to link resources and results, we talk about indirect, or overhead, costs.

For example, you should not determine how many microns the machine was worn out during the production of a given part, but with the help of an additional calculation you can always find out a more or less correct estimate of the costs due to equipment wear during the production of a given part. Typically, the analytical procedure for determining indirect costs is based on measuring the actual value of a special indicator called the “cost driver”. The peculiarity of this indicator is that its change allows one to quite accurately determine the change in the value of costs. For example, the number of manufactured products, machine hours and equipment operating hours, and man-hours of key production personnel can be used as a driver of production indirect costs. To determine the cost, in addition to the actual value of the driver, a conversion factor is also used. The essence of this coefficient is an estimate of how much costs will change if the cost driver changes by one unit.

Let's say equipment operating time is a driver of indirect production costs. The following ratio is used as a conversion factor: 1 hour of equipment operation increases indirect production costs by 15 den. units . If in February the operating time of the equipment was 20,000 machine hours, the estimated value of indirect production costs will be $300,000 (20,000 hours * 15 den. units / hour).

The most important criterion for choosing a cost driver is the accuracy of determining the amount of estimated costs: at the end of the year, when actual and estimated costs are compared, the difference between them should be minimal. If the estimated costs turn out to be higher than the actual ones, then by the amount of the discrepancy it is necessary to increase the profit and reduce the company's costs obtained by calculation. If the estimated costs turn out to be lower than the actual value, in this case the difference should reduce profit and increase costs (cost) obtained by calculation.

If the difference between actual and estimated costs, in the opinion of the company's management, is too high, another driver should be used (for example, man-hours of work of key production personnel). Sometimes several drivers are used at once to more accurately determine the amount of costs.

If costs change proportionally to changes in the driver, they are called variable costs. An example of variable costs is the cost of raw materials in the production of finished products. If the cost does not change despite a change in the cost driver, then it is a fixed cost. An example of fixed costs could be a company's expenses for management and control, preventive maintenance work, cleaning and security.

Depending on the nature of their impact on profit, costs can be instantaneous or inventoryable. Instantaneous, or periodic, costs reduce profits at the time they are incurred. An example of such costs would be marketing and administrative expenses.

In this case, you should keep in mind the difference between the profit received for the purposes of management accounting and the profit shown in the reporting for the tax office. For example, advertising costs are taken into account in the costs of the enterprise according to certain standards. If the standard is exceeded, the excess is reimbursed from the remaining profit after taxes.

This kind of approach has nothing to do with the economics of the enterprise and pursues the only goal - to maximize the amount of tax withdrawals from the enterprise. In management accounting, we are interested in the true amount of profit, the real profitability of our business, so it is necessary to take into account immediate expenses in full.

Unlike instantaneous, inventory expenses are treated as an asset until the goods are sold. This means, for example, that when building a house, the costs are wages to workers and the cost of materials. All monetary expenses are considered as a change in the form of existence of the property complex, and only when the built house is sold do the expenses incurred during its construction become expenses that reduce the amount of profit.

Costs can also be grouped by stage of the production process: research and development costs, design costs, product manufacturing costs, logistics and marketing costs, after-sales service costs, and management costs.

When analyzing production costs, three-element and two-element cost systems are used.

The three-element system consists of direct costs of raw materials, materials and components, direct labor costs and indirect, or general production, costs.

The two-element cost system consists of direct costs for raw materials, materials and components, or direct material costs, and conversion costs. Conversion costs are nothing more than the sum of direct labor costs and indirect costs.

Using the concept of conversion costs is appropriate for high-tech industries, which are characterized by a relatively small amount of direct labor costs. For example, if direct labor costs account for 5-6% of an enterprise’s costs, then in this case it is more convenient to use a two-element cost system.

There are two approaches to estimating costs when making management decisions. In the first approach, the cost of producing one product includes both variable and fixed costs. It is assumed that the products produced must recoup all production costs. For example, if a company produces 1000 products and variable costs are 5 den. units per product, and fixed costs - 10,000 den. units, then the cost of producing one product will be:

5 days units + 10,000 den. units /1000 products = 15 den. units

This approach is called full cost accounting. Total costs are calculated when preparing financial statements and determining the profit earned by the firm. Sometimes it is useful to use an approach in which only variable costs are included in the cost of producing a product, and fixed costs are considered as periodic ones associated with the activities of the entire enterprise. This approach is called direct cost accounting. In our example, the cost of producing one product will be only 5 den. units

2.2. Analysis by responsibility center

Responsibility centers. All divisions of enterprises are structural divisions. Each division is headed by a manager who is responsible for its activities; therefore, each department can be called a responsibility center.

Any enterprise or organization operates in the external environment. The external environment of an organization includes what surrounds it: customers, suppliers, competitors, society, authorities and other external parties. The organization is constantly involved in two-way connections with its external environment. The nature of the external environment in which the organization operates affects the nature of its management control system. In Fig. 2.1. the essence of responsibility centers is revealed in their interaction with the external environment.

a) In reality

b) Reflection of information

Fig.2.1. Interaction between centers and the external environment.

As shown in part B of Fig. 2.1., the responsibility center has inputs: raw materials and supplies in physical wine, hours of various types of labor and various types of services. Typically certain assets are also required.

The responsibility center performs work with these resources and, as a result, produces goods or services as output. These products go either to another responsibility center within the organization or to external customers.

Although the resources used in production are mostly in physical form—pounds of materials and hours of labor—for management control purposes they must be expressed in monetary terms to aggregate physically dissimilar elements of resources. The monetary measure of the resources used in a responsibility center is their cost. In addition to cost information, non-accounting information is used on such issues as the physical quantity of materials used, their quality, and the professional level of the workforce.

If the responsibility center's output is sold to outside customers, accounting measures it as revenue. If goods or services are transferred to other centers of responsibility of the same organization, then they can be measured either in monetary form, such as the cost of transferred goods or services, or in non-monetary form - the number of units of products

Responsibility center managers need information about the activities of the unit reporting to them. In addition to historical information about inputs (costs) and outputs, managers need information about planned future inputs and outputs. A management accounting system that processes planned and actual accounting information about the inputs and outputs of a responsibility center is called responsibility center accounting. Unlike a system of differentiated costs and income, which is compiled for a specific task, accounting by responsibility centers assumes the existence of a constant flow of information, the flow corresponds to a constant flow of inputs and outputs of the organization's responsibility centers.

An essential characteristic of responsibility center accounting is that it concentrates on responsibility centers. Total cost accounting focuses on goods and services (formally called products or programs) rather than on responsibility centers. This difference in the subject matter is the difference between accounting by responsibility centers and accounting for full costs.

The cost matrix offers a way to distinguish between costs by responsibility center and total programmable costs. The rows of the matrix are centers of responsibility, and its columns represent production programs (which in a business aimed at making a profit is nothing more than the production of efficient types of products).

Each responsibility center in an organization usually performs work on different programs. For example, Mercury Sable brand cars (production programs) are assembled at the same factories (responsibility centers). For example, each of two production divisions - production and assembly - work with both products X and Y. The other two responsibility centers - production support and sales and administration - serve both production programs. Ultimately, in each cell of the matrix one can find data on specific inputs for the execution of specific programs at a specific responsibility center. These inputs are called cost elements (or line elements).

In total, the matrix shows three dimensions of cost information, each of which answers different questions: 1) where did this cost item arise (dimension of the center of responsibility); 2) for what purpose it arose (dimension of the program); 3) what type of resource was used (cost element dimension)? If cost information in cells is summarized by row, the result is accounting data for responsibility centers, which is important for management. If this information is summarized by columns, information on program (here commodity) costs is displayed, which is necessary to determine prices and assess the profitability of programs.

Efficiency and efficiency. The activities of a responsibility center manager can be measured in the form of effectiveness and efficiency of the responsibility center. By effectiveness we mean how well the responsibility center does its job, i.e. the extent to which it achieves the desired or intended results. Efficiency is used in an engineering sense, i.e. number of units output per unit and stroke. Effective activity is expressed either in the production of a delivered volume of output with minimal use of input elements, or the maximum possible volume of output for a given scale of use of input elements.

Effectiveness is always inherent in the goals of the organization; efficiency is not. An effective responsibility center is one that produces products with the least amount of resources. However, if this output does not coincide with the goals of the organization, then the music center is ineffective.

Example. The responsibility center must be efficient and effective. In some situations, effectiveness and efficiency may be discovered in the same way. For example, in business organizations, profit represents efficiency and effectiveness. When a comprehensive measure does not exist, a classification of various performance indicators related to both effectiveness (for example, number of complaints per 1000 items sold) and efficiency (for example, number of labor hours per unit produced) is used.

Three elements of this relationship lead to the definition of the types of responsibility centers that play an important role in management control systems: that is, income centers, cost centers, profit centers and investment centers.

Revenue centers. If the manager of a responsibility center is responsible for monetary output (revenue) but is not responsible for the costs of the goods or services sold by the center, then the center is called a revenue center.

Cost centers. If a management system measures expenses (costs) incurred at a responsibility center, but does not measure its output in the form of income, then such a responsibility center is called a cost center.

Each responsibility center has output products, i.e. he does the work. However, in many cases, measuring this output as income is either impossible or necessary. For example, it will be very difficult to measure the monetary value of the output of an accounting or legal department,

Standard cost centers. A special type of cost center in which standard costs are established for many of its cost elements is called a standard cost center. The actual result is measured by the difference between the actual cost and these standards. Since standard costing systems are used in activities with a high level of task repetition, it is the basis of standard costing centers. Examples include assembly plants, fast food restaurants, blood testing laboratories, and auto repair shops. Conversely, most production support departments and administrative structures are not standard cost centers.

Profit centers. Income is the monetary expression of manufactured products; expenses (or cost) - monetary expression of the resources used; profit is the difference between income and expenses. If the activity of a responsibility center is measured as the difference between the income it receives and the costs it incurs, then this responsibility center is a profit center.

A profit center is like a miniature business. Like a stand-alone company, it has a profit and loss statement that shows revenue, expenses, and profit. Most of the profit center manager's decisions have an impact on the data in this report. Therefore, the profit and loss statement for a profit center is the main document of management control. Because profit center managers are measured by profit, they have an incentive to make input and output decisions that will increase their centers' reported profits. Profit centers operate as if they had their own business, so they are a good exercise for the sense of responsibility of general management. The use of the profit center concept is one of the most important tools that has made it possible to decentralize responsibility for profit in large companies.

Criteria for profit centers. In order for a responsibility center to become a profit center, the following conditions must be met:

· the volume of accounting records to measure output as revenue should be increased, and the responsibility centers receiving these outputs should take into account the cost of goods and services purchased;

· give the responsibility center manager more authority in making decisions on the quantity and quality of products produced or the ratio of product quantity to costs. In this case, the head of the profit center must control the inputs and outputs;

· a division that provides services to other centers cannot be a profit center, since they are usually provided free of charge. For example, if management conducts internal audit in a department, then the latter does not pay the costs of the internal audit service, and therefore the internal audit department is not a profit center.

It is ineffective to allocate a profit center when producing homogeneous products (for example, cement), where it is possible to use natural indicators (for example, tons of cement produced). The use of profit center techniques involves managers in their own business, competition arises between them, which makes it possible to improve the management of the division. In other cases, when divisions within an organization must work closely with each other, the profit center principle may cause excessive friction between them and jeopardize the well-being of the entire company, which may cause interest in short-term results.

When organizing accounting, special attention is paid to cost items that are only partially controlled at this level. Taking this into account, in analytical accounting and reporting costs are divided into two groups: controllable and uncontrollable. Based on current accounting data for each responsibility center, the accountant regularly prepares a performance report. The content of the performance report depends on the type of center and the indicators used to evaluate its performance. In this case, the reports of the lower responsibility center are consistently included in the report of the higher responsibility center. From Table 2.1. it is clear that the report of the head of the cutting shop contains only controlled indicators, and its result is included in the report of the director of plant A. In turn, the report of the director of plant A is included in the report of the production director

Table 2.1.

Interrelation of reports of responsibility centers of different levels of management

Table continuation.

Overhead costs	29 500	28 800	700
Plant A	233 500	235 000	-1500
Plant B	390 000	380 600	9 400
Total	754 000	746 800	7 200
Plant Director A
Salary of shop managers	75 000	78 000	-3 000
Depreciation	10 600	10 600	0
Insurance	6 800	6 300	500
Cutting shop	79 600	79 900	-300
Assembly shop	61500	60 200	1300
Total	233 500	235 000	-1500
Head of cutting shop
Raw materials	26 500	25 900	600
Direct salary	32 000	33 500	-1500
Indirect salary	7 200	7 000	200
Services	4 000	3 900	100
Other controllable costs	9 900	9 600	300
Total	79 600	79 900	-300

The budget execution report provides an opportunity to evaluate the activities of responsibility centers. The assessment of responsibility centers is based on deviation analysis.

2.3. Direct costing

The main purpose of direct costing is to be the information basis for entrepreneurial decisions. Direct costing is mainly focused on current solutions for managing the production and sales of products and goods. The main goal of such decisions is to maximize the profit of the reporting year. The entire set of tasks that require solutions in the operational direct cost system can be divided into supply, production and sales tasks. In addition, an important problem for an enterprise is the choice and justification of a pricing policy, for which direct cost data is also used.

The working tool of direct cost is the analysis of the relationship between production volumes, gross costs (cost) and profit, which we considered in calculating the zero profit point. These calculations are based, as a rule, on measuring production and sales volumes in physical units. In practice, they are possible at enterprises or their divisions that produce products and services of the same type. Other units of measurement of production volume and the degree of utilization of production capacity can be standard hours, machine hours, the percentage of useful operating time of machines, etc.

Based on the zero profit point formula, the value of the critical production volume, the critical sales price and revenue, the minimum marginal income and the critical level of fixed costs are found.

To determine the critical value of sales volume that must be ensured when the price is reduced in order to maintain the same marginal income, use relation (2.1):

MD0 x0 = MD1 x1,

Where x1 = MD0 x0/ MD1 (2.1)

where MD0, MD1 - marginal income before and after the price reduction; x0, x1 - production and sales volume before and after the price reduction.

With an increase in fixed costs and constant variable costs, the amount of marginal income does not change, and profit decreases by the amount of the increase in fixed costs. The critical volume of production and sales is increasing.

It is especially important to determine the impact of changes in fixed costs on the enterprise’s profit, since, as noted earlier, it is these costs that regulate the final results of the enterprise’s production and economic activities. In this kind of calculations, it is necessary to use at least three indicators: actual production volume, planned production volume and the level of utilization of the enterprise's production capacity.

In the practice of domestic analysis, comparing these indicators, as a rule, was limited to identifying the impact of cost overruns on the amount of profit reduction due to underutilization of capacity or failure to meet the production volume plan. But such a calculation cannot be considered exhaustive when analyzing the impact of volume on profit, since the cost of production is not the only influencing factor. Therefore, it is more correct to use marginal income rather than the amount of fixed costs to determine the impact of the use of production capacity on profit. In this case, it is possible to take into account the entire impact of the degree of utilization of production capacity on profit. Let us consider the methodology of such analysis using the example of calculation in Table 2.1. In this case, let us assume that the enterprise draws up an estimate for the optimal capacity utilization for given conditions.

When calculating the impact on profit of production volume only based on fixed costs, the overrun due to deterioration in the use of normal production capacity amounted to UAH 90 thousand. The calculation given in Table 2.1 shows that according to the same initial data, profit decreased by 240 thousand UAH, and the amount by which profit decreased coincides with the amount by which marginal income decreased.

Table 2.1.

Calculation of the impact of production volume (production capacity) on profit

Index	For standard capacity 300 thousand units.	For the planned production volume of 250 thousand pcs.		For the actual production volume of 240 thousand units.			Deviations, thousand UAH.
	per unit, UAH.	total, thousand	per unit, UAH.	total, thousand UAH	per unit,	total, thousand UAH	actual from normative	including from
								normative	actual
Revenues from sales	15	4500	15	3750	15	3600	-900	-750	-150

Table continuation.

Calculating using the marginal income rate, we get the same results:

1). Profit deviations due to underutilization of normal capacity: (250,000 - 300,000) 4.00 = - 200 (thousand UAH).

2). Profit deviations due to failure to fulfill the plan for production volume: (240,000 - 250,000) 4.00 = - 40 (thousand UAH).

The impact on profit from the use of capacity (changes in production volume) is UAH 240 thousand.

Thus, the use of a marginal income rate allows us to more fully take into account the impact on profits of fluctuations in production volume or changes in the use of production capacity.

Analysis of the relationship between production volume, cost, profit and marginal income, as well as the influence of production volume on cost and profit, is a promising direction for the development of domestic analysis of economic activity in the conditions of the formation and development of market relations.

There are a number of general patterns in the use of direct cost data for enterprise management:

· assessment of the profitability or unprofitability of a particular solution option, its expediency or inexpediency is made on the basis of amounts and coverage rates, and not the amount of profitability calculated at full costs;

· as a criterion for evaluating comparable alternatives, decisions use the amount of savings in variable costs per unit of production, and not the total amount of savings or increase in cost;

· the marginal cost value is considered the maximum level of costs when assessing their effectiveness and feasibility;

· in all cases, when choosing the optimal solution, it is necessary to take into account the values ​​of limiting factors: sales opportunities, bottlenecks in production, lack of storage space, resource limitations, etc.

The optimal production plan is determined either by trial or (which is much more efficient) by solving a linear programming problem to maximize profit or machine utilization in the presence of several limiting factors.

Decisions in the field of production in the operational direct cost system are made based on data on the value of variable costs, rates and coverage amounts, taking into account the degree of utilization of production capacity over time. On their basis, questions are resolved about the choice of the type of equipment on which products can be manufactured or an order can be fulfilled, about the optimal placement of this volume on different machines, machine tools and other equipment in terms of cost.

A large group of management tasks that can be solved using these direct cost systems are tasks related to the selection and planning of the sales range, solving issues of product renewal, developing new market sectors, etc.

In a market economy, situations of rise and fall in production are possible, and therefore planning of the sales range should take into account the degree of utilization of production capacity (Table 2.2. Appendix).

The selection of products and goods for sale is carried out according to the criterion of the maximum coverage rate. A different decision is fraught with errors that can lead to negative results.

The choice of sales range and, accordingly, production volumes at full and partial utilization of production capacity can give different results when assessing the profitability of various options based on full and reduced costs. At the same time, it is not always possible to say that conclusions based on direct costing data are more correct than conclusions based on gross cost indicators. Everything is decided by taking into account the circumstances and goals of calculation and assortment policy.

In conditions of full utilization of production capacity, it is not enough to know the amount of profit per unit of product to include it in the production plan: if there are bottlenecks or limiting factors, it is necessary to calculate the value of the financial result per unit of the limiting factor.

When planning a production program, when there are a large number of limiting factors, linear programming methods, in particular simplex, are used.

In general, the production program optimization problem is written as follows (relation 2.2):

where xij is the production volume of the jth type of product, pcs.; cj - profit per unit of the j-th product, UAH; bi is the volume of the i-th type of resource (limiting factor); aij is the consumption rate of the i-th type of resource per unit of the j-th product.

In the traditional formulation, this is the problem of finding the optimal range of output according to the criterion of maximum profit. From a mathematical point of view, this formulation of the problem is absolutely correct, but when assessing the results of its solution from an economic point of view, it is necessary to keep in mind that calculations based on data on the full cost may lead to incorrect conclusions. In this case, it is impossible to consider profit per unit of product as a constant value for any volume and structure of output. The formulation of the problem will be correct from an economic point of view if we eliminate the influence of the factor of fixed costs on the profit of the product. This can be done by using marginal income instead of profit as an optimality criterion. Direct costing provides information about marginal income in the context of manufactured products.

Direct costing and pricing policy. One of the most important areas of enterprise management is price policy. Let's consider some aspects of pricing policy from the point of view of direct costing.

Currently, in a market economy, such approaches to pricing are more popular, in which, first of all, factors related to demand rather than supply are taken into account, i.e. an assessment of how much the buyer can and wants to pay for the product offered to him. After establishing the equilibrium price, it is necessary to analyze all the costs of the enterprise and try to reduce them as much as possible. Calculation of the actual cost of a product cannot be directly used in setting the selling price, but it should be taken into account when considering the issue of releasing a product, the estimated selling price of which is set taking into account market conditions.

Some price specialists believe that the level of demand should generally be the only factor to be taken into account when setting prices, with production costs considered only as a limiting factor in the decision. However, knowing the possible limits of price reductions depending on the influence of various market factors is just as necessary for an enterprise as researching the market itself. Therefore, in management accounting there are the concepts of long-term and short-term lower price limits.

The long-term price floor shows what price can be set to minimally cover the full costs of producing and marketing a product. It is equal to the full cost of the product. The short-term price floor focuses on a price that covers only variable costs. It is equal to the cost only in terms of variable costs. The calculation of the long-term lower price limit is associated with calculating the full cost of products, the calculation of the short-term lower price limit is subject to accounting and calculation using the direct costing system.

Relevant for domestic industrial enterprises that have the opportunity to enter foreign markets with their products, or enterprises with foreign capital participation, is the task of setting prices for export products, and often such a price needs to be set as low as possible in order to penetrate the market.

In the process of making decisions about the price of products and services sold, it is necessary to keep in mind that in market conditions the price largely depends on the relationship between supply and demand, the presence of competitors and competitive conditions.

With price competition, it is always important to know the lower limit of the price that allows the company to sell its products without loss. It is generally accepted that the lower limit of price is the level of variable costs per unit of goods. In general terms, possible options for making decisions on the lower price limit are presented in Table 2.3. Applications.

It should be borne in mind that the algorithm for making price decisions formalizes only the general principle of their calculation. Its reaction requires taking into account many other factors, and, above all, the relationship between supply and demand.

2.4. Approaches to effective implementation of management accounting in an organization

In recent years, interest in management accounting among senior and middle managers has been steadily increasing. It is generally accepted that management accounting is a necessary tool for managing an organization, allowing to improve the quality and efficiency of management decisions, maximize the expected result and effectively control the risks of business activities. Many enterprises have built information systems aimed at internal users. The demand for the services of consulting companies for setting up management accounting systems is actively growing. At the same time, today many managers do not always understand the role of management accounting in the organization and do not clearly understand the goals and objectives of its setting.

Two main features of management accounting can be noted - orientation towards the user of information and efficiency in providing data. Orientation towards the user of information - a specific manager of the organization - characterizes the essence of management accounting. At the same time, managers' information needs for decision-making and control will depend, firstly, on the functional area in which they specialize, and secondly, on their position in the organizational structure of the enterprise. In this regard, the management accounting system in a particular organization can be built in various ways that take into account this specificity (Figure 2.2).

For example, it could be a comprehensive information system that provides managers at all levels of management with the necessary information about the status of each of the main functional areas, such as production, sales, finance, etc. At the same time, it can also be a local system that generates data for a limited circle of managers (for example, a performance indicator system for the Chief Engineer’s service) or within a limited functional area (for example, operational accounting of production or financial performance indicators).

Fig.2.2. Construction of a management accounting system in a specific organization.

Management accounting is an approach to organizing an enterprise information system that is user-oriented than any universal methodology. The management accounting system may not be in contact with accounting and does not operate with financial indicators. The decision on the configuration of the management accounting system must be made by the head of the organization, based on the existing information needs for management needs and the available resources that can be used to build an internal information system.

The second feature of management accounting - efficiency - is due to the fact that information for the needs of decision-making and control will be useful only if it is transmitted to users in a timely manner. When building complex management accounting systems covering all levels of management, the requirement for efficiency dictates the need to automate accounting procedures, since manual data processing does not allow for timely receipt of information.

An efficient management accounting system must include the following basic elements:

· centers (areas) of responsibility;

· controlled indicators;

· primary management accounting documents;

· accounting registers for data grouping;

· management reporting forms;

· accounting procedures for collecting, processing and presenting information to users.

Organizing accounting by responsibility centers allows you to measure the performance of line managers, quickly monitor deviations of actual indicator values ​​from target values ​​and identify their causes (deviation management). By the center of responsibility we mean the officials of the organization to whom the authority and responsibility for performing certain management functions are delegated and for whom target values ​​of controlled indicators are set. For example, when building management accounting in the field of finance, centers of responsibility for income and costs, profits and investments can be identified. If the management accounting system is limited to a separate structural unit of the enterprise, then the centers of responsibility can be identified based on the results of the decomposition of functional areas of activity. For example, in the service of the Chief Engineer at an industrial enterprise, centers of responsibility for achieving target indicators in such areas as: technological support may be allocated; industrial safety and ecology; equipment maintenance and repair; technical development and applied scientific research; providing production with certain resources (electricity, gas, water, etc.).

In order for management accounting data to be generated purposefully, it is necessary to clearly define the composition of controlled indicators by responsibility centers. In this case, the following actions must be performed:

Determining the main purpose of the activities of the organization's divisions that are covered by the management accounting system. The purpose of the unit's activities is determined by the overall (strategic) goal of the organization.

Decomposition of the main goal of an activity into its constituent subgoals and tasks. As a result of decomposition, a set of tasks is obtained, each of which can be associated with a measure of achievement of results (indicator). At the same time, there is also a division of subgoals and tasks by management levels (strategy, plans for implementing the strategy, budgets). Depending on the needs of management, management accounting can generate indicators both for all levels of management and for a specific level of management (for example, accounting for budgetary indicators).

Next, for each task, a set of indicators is determined that reflect the result of its implementation. Practice has shown the advisability of distinguishing two groups of indicators: key and auxiliary. Key indicators evaluate the activity of the enterprise (division, service, etc.) as a whole, that is, they characterize the degree to which the main goal is achieved. Auxiliary indicators reflect the degree of fulfillment of requirements and restrictions on achieving goals. For example, in the functional area “ecology” the level of emissions into the atmosphere can be selected as a key indicator, and deviations from established standards for emissions into the environment can be selected as an auxiliary indicator.

Once a set of benchmarks has been developed, it is necessary to distribute them among the previously identified responsibility centers. In this case, a correspondence is established between the composition of tasks to be solved within the responsibility center and the measures of the final result of its activities.

The final stage is the determination of target values ​​of control indicators, which is the subject of planning. They can act as indicators reflecting the result of plans (for example, the values ​​of income, costs, profit in financial terms), or act as a starting point for the development of plans. For example, determining the target level of sales profitability serves as the basis for developing an action plan to achieve it. The task of management accounting is to generate factual data on the values ​​of controlled indicators and provide them to interested parties within the organization.

Another important point is the definition of accounting periods, that is, time intervals at the end of which information about the values ​​of controlled indicators becomes available. Obviously, the shorter the accounting periods, the higher the efficiency of management accounting. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the choice of short accounting periods significantly complicates management accounting procedures, increases its labor intensity and puts forward increased demands on the professional training and labor intensity of personnel involved in the accounting process.

The establishment of management accounting in an organization must be initiated by top management, who must first understand their needs for obtaining information for management needs. To set up management accounting, it is advisable to create a working group, the leader of which must have significant authority within the organization, while he is given broad powers in terms of obtaining the necessary information from departments. As a rule, the process of formalizing needs and setting up management accounting occurs with the participation of external consultants, who are also part of the working group.

In the process of establishing management accounting in an organization, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

· identification of functional areas in which the construction or restructuring of management accounting is expected;

· identifying the elements of internal accounting existing in the organization within the identified functional areas and assessing their adequacy to actually occurring economic processes, as well as the information needs of management;

· development of the concept of management accounting in the organization and an action plan for its construction;

· development of a structure for managers' areas of responsibility;

· determination of the main elements of the management accounting system and their regulation;

· implementation of a management accounting system in an organization and consulting support of the implementation process.

The most important requirement for the effective functioning of the management accounting system in an organization is its regulatory support. In the process of establishing management accounting, a “Regulation on management accounting and reporting” is developed, which should reflect:

· goals and objectives of the management accounting system, basic principles of its construction, basic concepts;

· description of the structure of responsibility centers;

· composition of controlled indicators by responsibility centers and algorithm for their determination;

· forms of primary documents and reporting documents;

· procedures for preparing and processing primary documents;

· management accounting document flow schedule.

After completion of the preparation of regulations, the stage of implementation of the management accounting system begins. Implementation involves training of employees; testing of management accounting procedures on real data from one accounting cycle with the participation of developers; adjustment of regulations based on the results of their trial use; approval of regulations; adaptation of existing or implementation of new automation systems.

Conclusions on the second section

1. Costs are the use of a certain resource to achieve a certain goal. Costs are always associated with a specific object. When analyzing production costs, three-element and two-element cost systems are used. The three-element system consists of direct costs of raw materials, materials and components, direct labor costs and indirect, or general production, costs. The two-element cost system consists of direct costs for raw materials, materials and components, or direct material costs, and conversion costs. Conversion costs are nothing more than the sum of direct labor costs and indirect costs.

2. All divisions of enterprises are structural divisions. Each division is headed by a manager who is responsible for its activities; therefore, each department can be called a responsibility center. Responsibility center managers need information about the activities of the unit reporting to them. In addition to historical information about inputs (costs) and outputs, managers need information about planned future inputs and outputs. When organizing accounting, special attention is paid to cost items that are only partially controlled at this level. Taking this into account, in analytical accounting and reporting costs are divided into two groups: controllable and uncontrollable. Based on current accounting data for each responsibility center, the accountant regularly prepares a performance report. The budget execution report provides an opportunity to evaluate the activities of responsibility centers

3. The main purpose of direct costing is to be the information basis for entrepreneurial decisions. The working tool of direct cost is the analysis of the relationship between production volumes, gross costs (cost) and profit, which we considered in calculating the zero profit point.

4. The approach to organizing an optimal management accounting system at a particular enterprise may be different. The management accounting system may not be in contact with accounting and does not operate with financial indicators. The decision on the configuration of the management accounting system must be made by the head of the organization, based on the existing information needs for management needs and the available resources that can be used to build an internal information system.

CONCLUSION

In the process of working on the course topic, conclusions and generalizations were made according to the main structural sections of the work.

1. Theoretical and methodological foundations for studying the content and specifics of management accounting made it possible to determine its characteristic features

The increasing complexity of business and the need to make management decisions in a dynamic and difficult-to-predict environment have led to the process of transforming traditional accounting into a system for processing and analyzing financial information. In order for a business to develop and withstand competition, the manager must have a complete and clear picture of the financial activities of the enterprise. Management is impossible without information or a set of information about the state of the managed system, control actions and the external environment. Management accounting is a field of knowledge and field of activity related to the formation and use of economic information for management within an economic entity (enterprise, firm, bank, etc.). Its goal is to help managers (managers) make economically sound decisions; the main objectives of the organization of management accounting are orientation towards achieving a predetermined goal of entrepreneurship, the need to provide alternative options for solving the problem, participation in the selection of the optimal option and in the calculation of its regulatory parameters execution, focus on identifying deviations from specified performance parameters, interpretation of identified deviations and their analysis.

According to the intended purpose, management accounting systems can be divided into strategic accounting for top management of enterprises, companies, firms and current accounting for internal management. An integral part of this type of accounting is the operational diagnostics of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise.

Management accounting has Western roots and is a new thing in our country. But in the West, this area of ​​practical knowledge has evolved for quite a long time. In the national economy, management accounting has been used for less than a decade.

2. It is impossible to present all areas of analysis in management accounting aimed at solving the problems of a particular organization within the framework of a course project, therefore the basic areas used in accounting were chosen - cost analysis, analysis by responsibility centers, direct costing.

When analyzing production costs, three-element and two-element cost systems are used. The three-element system consists of direct costs of raw materials, materials and components, direct labor costs and indirect, or general production, costs. The two-element cost system consists of direct costs for raw materials, materials and components, or direct material costs, and conversion costs. Conversion costs are nothing more than the sum of direct labor costs and indirect costs.

All divisions of enterprises are structural divisions. Responsibility center managers need information about the activities of the unit reporting to them. In addition to historical information about inputs (costs) and outputs, managers need information about planned future inputs and outputs. When organizing accounting, special attention is paid to cost items that are only partially controlled at this level. Taking this into account, in analytical accounting and reporting costs are divided into two groups: controllable and uncontrollable. Based on current accounting data for each responsibility center, the accountant regularly prepares a performance report. The budget execution report provides an opportunity to evaluate the activities of responsibility centers

The main purpose of direct costing is to be the information basis for entrepreneurial decisions. The working tool of direct cost is the analysis of the relationship between production volumes, gross costs (cost) and profit, which we considered in calculating the zero profit point.

The approach to organizing an optimal management accounting system at a particular enterprise may be different. The management accounting system may not be in contact with accounting and does not operate with financial indicators. The decision on the configuration of the management accounting system must be made by the head of the organization, based on the existing information needs for management needs and the available resources that can be used to build an internal information system.

Bibliography

1. Law of Ukraine "On Accounting and Financial Reporting in Ukraine", No. 996-XIV dated July 16, 1999;

2. Adamov N., Concepts, essence and functions of management accounting//Financial newspaper dated 28.05. 2007;

3. Upchurch A. Management accounting: principles and practice. Per. from English / Ed. I'M IN. Sokolova, I.A. Smirnova. – M.: Finance and Statistics, 2002;

4. Golov S.F. Managerial appearance. – K.: Libra, 2003;

5. Drury K. Cost accounting using the standard-cost method. Per. from English Ed. N.D. Eriashvili. – M: Audit, UNITY, 1998;

6. Desyatkina I.V. Management Accounting. A short course of lectures Part 1d. Simferopol, 2006;

7. Ivashkevich V.B. Management accounting. – M: Economist, 2003;

8. Karpova T.P. Fundamentals of management accounting. M.: Infra - M, 1997;

9. Karpova T.P. Management Accounting. M: UNITY, - 2003;

10. Murymov A.A., Establishment and restructuring of management accounting in an organization//Theory and practice of financial and management accounting, No. 3, 2007;

11. Drury K. Introduction to management and production accounting, M: Williams Publishing House, 2001.

ANNEX 1

Table 2.2.

Criteria for making decisions on the volume and structure of production.

Decision Criteria Contents of the decision selection criterion Underutilization of all capacities Cover rate per product All types of products (services) are produced with a positive coverage rate: рj – rpj ≥ 0 One bottleneck when the others are fully loaded

Coverage rate per narrow unit

The selection is made in descending order of the coverage rate per unit of narrow revenge:

wj = рj – rpj / vj: tEj; (j= 1,…,n)

Lots of bottlenecks Amount of lost profits

MD =

Legend: pj - price for products (services) of type j; rpj - planned variable costs of products (services) of type j, wj - specific marginal income per unit of bottleneck; tEj is the volume of bottleneck consumption per unit of j-th product (service); xj - planned volume of sales of products (services) of type j; MD - total marginal income; xj is the volume of demand for products (services) of type j; vj - available volume of the j-th bottleneck.

Appendix 2

Table 2.3.

Criteria for making decisions on the lower price limit.

Decision Criteria Decision making algorithm Traditional assortment Variable costs and planned coverage rate Additional contract Variable costs, additional variable and fixed costs of production

pz = rpz + Δrpz + ΔKRTz / xz

Additional contract Costs including lost profits

pz = rpz + Δrpz + ΔKRTz / xz +

Pj – kpj / tEj * tEz

Additional contract Relevant costs taking into account lost profits

Linear programming problem:

xhj ≥xj j = (1,…,m)

xj ≥ 0 j = (1,…,m)

Legend: pj - price for products of the jth type; rpj - standard variable costs for the production of products of the jth type; Rfix - fixed costs; pz - lower limit of the price of the additional contract; rpz - variable costs per unit of production; Δrpz is the increase in variable costs caused by the execution of the contract; ΔKR – additional fixed costs caused by the implementation of an additional contract (per month); Tz is the number of months in which additional fixed costs occur; xi - contract volume; рj - price for products of the jth type, excluded from the production program in order to fulfill an additional contract; rpj - variable cost of products of the jth type; tEj is the bottleneck consumption per unit of excluded product of the jth type; tEz - bottleneck consumption per unit of additional contract; MD - total marginal profit (sum for all types of products); xj is the planned volume of sales of products of type j; Tj is the available volume of the j-th bottleneck; tij is the need for a bottleneck of type i to produce products of type j; xhj is the volume of demand for products of type j.

1. Accounting and analysis. Economic activity as an object of accounting, analysis and control

Economic activity is the activity of individuals and enterprises of various forms of ownership and organization, carried out within the framework of current legislation and associated with production or trade, provision of services or performance of a certain type of work in order to satisfy the social and economic interests of not only the owner, but also the workforce.

In the internal management system of any enterprise, the decisive link is accounting, which ensures the collection, systematization and synthesis of data necessary for management. Accounting represents a type of activity whose subject is information. Accounting establishes the presence, measures and records the results of economic activities from a quantitative and qualitative perspective.

The purpose of accounting is to streamline information flows for effective use in management decisions and preserve information for the archive.

Various types of business analysis and analysis and their results are widely used by a wide variety of stakeholders.

Typically, in business activities, a distinction is made between financial accounting and management (accounting) accounting.

1. Financial accounting is based on accounting information that, in addition to being used within the company by management, is communicated to those outside the organization.

2. Management accounting covers all types of accounting information that is measured, processed and communicated for internal use by management. The division of accounting that has developed in practice gives rise to a division of analysis into external and intra-economic analysis.

External financial analysis can be carried out by interested parties. The basis for such an analysis is mainly the official financial statements of the enterprise, both published in the press and presented to interested parties in the form of a balance sheet. For example, to assess the stability of a particular bank, the client looks at the banks’ balance sheets and, based on them, calculates certain indicators for comparison with stable banks. But, unfortunately, a complete, comprehensive analysis cannot be done due to the incompleteness and limited information presented in the financial and accounting documentation.

External analysis includes analysis of absolute and relative indicators of profit, profitability, balance sheet liquidity, solvency of the enterprise, efficiency of use of borrowed capital, and general analysis of the financial condition of the company.

In contrast, internal financial analysis is necessary and carried out in the interests of the enterprise itself. On its basis, control is exercised over the activities of the enterprise, not only financial activities, but also organizational ones, and further ways of production development are outlined. The basis for such an analysis are the financial documents (reports) of the enterprise itself, this is the balance sheet in extended form, all kinds of financial reports, not only for a certain date (month, year), but also current ones, which allows you to have a more accurate description of the affairs and stability of the enterprise. The main direction of internal financial analysis is analysis of the effectiveness of capital advances, the relationship of costs, turnover and profit, the use of borrowed capital, and equity. In other words, all aspects of the enterprise’s economic activities are studied. Often certain areas of such analysis may be trade secrets.

Analysis of economic activity is one of the main elements of management of any organization. It serves as a means for identifying reserves, justifying business plans, and monitoring their implementation with a focus on the ultimate goal of the business - making a profit.

480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Dissertation - 480 RUR, delivery 10 minutes, around the clock, seven days a week and holidays

Meirieva Madina Ayupovna. Development of methodological support for accounting and analysis of human resources of a commercial organization: strategic aspect: strategic aspect: dis. ...cand. econ. Sciences: 08.00.12 Rostov n/d, 2006 303 p. RSL OD, 61:07-8/1111

Introduction

CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ACCOUNTING HUMAN RESOURCES OF A COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATION 15

1.1. Human resources as an accounting object 15

1.2.Methodological aspects of accounting of human resources and the concept of reflecting them in the financial statements of a commercial organization 31

1.3. Features of the organization of management accounting of human resources 47

CHAPTER 2. DEVELOPMENT OF METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RESOURCES OF A COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATION 63

2.1. Study of the current state of methodological support for analyzing the use of human resources of a commercial organization 63

2.2. Features of human resource analysis at oil producing and oil refining enterprises 77

2.3. Research on the development of methods for strategic analysis of human resources abroad 93

CHAPTER 3. IMPROVING METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR ACCOUNTING AND ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RESOURCES 108

3.1. Strategic management accounting as a basis for human resource management 108

3.2. Improving the methodology for strategic management accounting of human resources 125

3.3 Development of methods for strategic analysis of human resources 139

CONCLUSION 157

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 166

APPENDIX 189

Introduction to the work

High-quality economic control presupposes the effective management of the economic resources of a commercial organization based on data generated in the accounting system. The modern business organization is now viewed as more than just the amount of money invested in the business. Human resources, the policy of a commercial organization in the labor market and accumulated knowledge are becoming increasingly important. This is feasible through the interaction of such management functions as accounting, control, analysis, regulation, and human resource planning.

In strategic management, the concept of human resource management (HRM), which arose in the 80s of the 20th century and was transformed into the concept of strategic human resource management, has become widespread. The traditional human resource management system does not fully contribute to their optimization and the efficiency of economic entities. In this regard, the issues of improving the methods of accounting and analysis of human resources focused on making management decisions in this area are being updated.

Accounting data serves as the basis for making management decisions on human resource management. In turn, the strategy and tactics of human resource management put forward requirements for the formation of accounting information in the necessary sections and perspectives. In this regard, the development of new non-traditional systems for accounting and human resource management, the study of problems of increasing quality characteristics and the analytical nature of information about them is one of the pressing problems of theory and practice.

Human resource accounting has its own methodological basis, which is the theory of human and intellectual capital. For the development of the theory of human capital, T. Schultz in 1979 and G. Becker in 1992 were awarded the Nobel Prize. Due to the importance and relevance of problems related to human resources, the American Accounting Association (AAA) created the Committee on Human Resource Accounting (Committee on Human Resource Accounting). In 1973, this committee defined Human resource accounting (HRA) as “the process of identifying and evaluating human resource data and then communicating the resulting information to interested parties.”

The Work Institute in America (WIA) defines human resource accounting as: “the development of a theoretical framework that explains the nature and determinants of the value of people from the perspective of formal organizations; developing valid and reliable methods for assessing the value and value of people to organizations; designing organizational support for the implementation of the proposed assessment methods.”

There are three approaches to human resource accounting:

Cost approach (cost accounting);

Value approach (taking into account the effect);

Cost-value.

However, in the context of the concept of strategic human resource management, human resource accounting is a much broader concept that is not limited to labor and wage accounting. More and more scientists are inclined to think about the need to consider human resources as an asset, and not as an expense.

Costs of hiring labor, costs of education, training and retraining of personnel, wages are reflected in accounting. In most cases, these expenses are considered as operating expenses. However, Japanese and German companies view personnel costs as long-term investments that bring high returns.

The need to solve methodological issues of accounting and analysis of human resources, insufficient practical development of issues of accounting and analysis of human resources of a modern commercial organization determined the special significance and relevance of the study.

The following domestic authors made a significant contribution to the study of the problems of methodology for accounting for human resources of commercial organizations: Bezrukikh P.S., Bogataya I.N., Breslavtseva N.A., Bakhrushina M.A., Vorobyova.E.V., Geits I.V. , Kerimov V.E., Karpova T.P., Kondrakov N.P., Kuter M.I., Labyntsev N.T., Nikolaeva S.A., Paliy V.F., Sokolov Ya.V., Tkach V.I., Khakhonova.N.N., Sheremet A.D. and others.

Issues of human resource analysis are reflected in the works of such scientists as Barngolts S.A., Boronenkova S.A., Vesnin V.R., Efremova V.S., Kovalev V.V., Markaryan E.A., Milovidov K.N., Ripol -Zaragosi F.B., Fatkhutdinova R.A. and others.

Among foreign authors, research and development should be highlighted by Aaker D., Bernstein L.A., Van Breda M.F., Van Horn J.C., Damari R., Drury K., Matthews M.R., Needles B., Ryan B., Perera M.H.B., Richard J., Stone D., Ward K., Helfert E., Hendriksen E., et al.

The Russian Federation uses a cost-based approach and accounting for human resources, which is not fully organized compared to foreign countries such as America, Japan, Great Britain, etc. Currently, human resources are reflected indirectly in accounting. Analytical accounting data makes it possible to estimate the number of human resources in a commercial organization, wages in the context of each employee, as well as his contribution to economic activity in the form of time worked and data on the production of products (works, services). In the balance sheet, data on human resources is reflected in the form of labor costs - in the asset balance sheet and the organization's accounts payable to personnel - in the liability side. Form No. 2 “Profit and Loss Statement” reflects data on the cost of products, works, services, one of the elements of which is labor costs.

Human resources are an organization's most valuable assets, namely the people who individually and collectively contribute to achieving organizational goals. A new approach to considering human resources as an object of strategic management accounting is that they are considered as intangible assets, and the process of their use is reflected using cost accounts and depreciation accounts.

Issues of accounting and analysis of human resources in Russian conditions, despite the accumulated foreign and domestic theoretical and practical potential, the problems of developing methods of accounting and analysis of human resources have not been sufficiently studied, which necessitates further scientific research in this direction.

The relevance of this problem, its scientific and practical significance and, at the same time, insufficient development in Russian conditions, determined the choice of the topic of the dissertation research, its purpose and objectives.

Purpose and objectives of the study. The purpose of the work is to develop approaches to improve the accounting and analysis of human resources of commercial organizations. The set goal determined the feasibility of solving the following tasks:

evaluate existing methodological approaches to strategic management accounting of human resources and justify directions for their improvement;

explore the development of methodological support for the analysis of human resources of a commercial organization;

develop new approaches to improving the accounting and analysis of human resources of a commercial organization.

Object and subject of research. The subject of the study is the methodology of strategic management accounting and human resource analysis. Business operations carried out in commercial organizations related to human resources were chosen as the object of study. The object of practical implementation of the research was OJSC Ingushneftegazprom, as well as its branches BSDU Malgobekneft and Karabulak OGDP.

The theoretical and methodological basis was provided by studies that make up the conceptual provisions of economic teachings and accounting of various directions on the problem under study, legislative acts, regulatory materials and intra-industry recommendations.

The research was carried out within the framework of the Passport of the specialty of the Higher Attestation Commission 08.00.12 - accounting, statistics, section 1 Accounting and economic analysis, clause 1.8. Accounting in organizations of various organizational and legal forms, all spheres and industries, clause 1.9 Investment, financial and management analysis.

Instrumental and methodological apparatus. To solve the assigned problems, analysis and synthesis, inductive and deductive methods, methods of comparative analysis, vertical, horizontal, coefficient analysis, data grouping, balance methods, factor analysis, logical and systematic approaches, observation, dialectical, statistical, used by the world were used as tools. science in the knowledge of socio-economic phenomena and allowing the most complete study of the problems under study.

The information and empirical base was formed on the basis of legislative acts and regulations regulating the organization of accounting of human resources in commercial organizations of the Russian Federation, legislative and industry (departmental) regulations, methodological recommendations and instructions specifying accounting standards in accordance with industry and other features, international accounting and reporting standards, materials from periodicals, monographic studies by domestic and foreign economists, data from an analytical study conducted by the applicant based on the accounting data of OJSC Ingushneftegazprom.

Working hypothesis. The modern model of competitiveness of a commercial organization is based on the principle of effective use, preservation and development of human resources, without well-established accounting of which it is impossible to develop and successfully implement strategies in this area, while we propose to consider human resources as intangible assets, and reflect the process of their use with using cost accounts and depreciation accounts, and not as expenses, while expenses for hiring labor, education, training and retraining of personnel, wages - as long-term investments that bring high profits.

Main provisions submitted for defense:

1. To make management decisions when implementing the organization’s strategy, the methods of accounting and analysis of human resources must be adequate to it. The directions we propose for improving the accounting and analysis of human resources involve the organization of strategic management accounting and strategic analysis of human resources at enterprises. As part of the accounting and analytical support for human resource management of an organization, which includes a methodology for accounting for human resources, concepts for reflecting human resources in accounting and reporting, a system for monitoring the external and internal environment of the organization and methodological support, methods and techniques for analyzing human resources, relevant information is generated about human resources, necessary for both external and internal users of financial statements.

2. Human resources are the most valuable assets of a commercial organization. A new approach to the study of human resources as an object of strategic management accounting is that they are considered as intangible assets, and the process of their use is reflected using cost accounts and depreciation accounts. As experience shows, commercial organizations that make significant investments in education and professional training of personnel become the most competitive, which ultimately leads to increased labor productivity and an improved quality of life. Human resource accounting can provide valuable information, contribute to the fulfillment of the function of social accountability of firms to employees, and allow monitoring changes in the quantitative and qualitative parameters of human resources (human capital) in the economy at both the micro and macro levels.

3. Strategic analysis of human resources is carried out in two directions: study of the internal environment of the organization, i.e. internal analysis and study of the organization’s external environment, i.e. external strategic analysis, providing for the creation of a monitoring system for various factors. When conducting external strategic analysis, it is necessary to study the influence of a group of factors: political and legal, economic, sociocultural, technological. Internal strategic analysis of human resources involves analyzing the competitiveness of personnel, studying the costs of human resources; the existing incentive system, its compliance with the strategic objectives of a commercial organization, analysis of the state and effectiveness of actions to search, attract and select the necessary employees, the effectiveness of work on primary training, advanced training and personnel development, study of the state of training, retraining, advanced training, human resource development, as well as analysis of the strategy and adequacy of the human resources of a commercial organization to the tasks of its effective implementation.

4. It is advisable to improve the methodology for analyzing human resources on the basis of conducting strategic analysis in a commercial organization. The essence of the methodology is that the environment of a commercial organization, the competitiveness of personnel are studied, the organization of human resource management is assessed, the strategy and adequacy of the human resources of a commercial organization to the tasks of its effective implementation are analyzed, and personnel work, remuneration and motivation systems, the state of internal relations in organizations, etc. Strategic analysis of human resources is carried out in the following areas: 1. Analysis of external environmental factors. 2. Analysis of personnel competitiveness 3. Analysis of planned and actual headcount, statistical and analytical structure of human resources, personnel costs. 4. Analysis of the strategy and adequacy of the human resources of a commercial organization to the tasks of its effective implementation.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation research lies in the fact that, from the standpoint of a systems approach, scientific and methodological provisions have been developed and substantiated aimed at improving the methods of accounting and analysis of human resources in the conditions of changing environmental factors for the implementation of targeted production and financial policies.

The main provisions of the dissertation research, which characterize scientific novelty and are submitted for defense, include the following:

It is proposed to make additions to PBU 14/2000, providing for the possibility of using, as one of the options for accounting for human resources, their reflection in the composition of intangible assets, which will make it possible to take into account human resources.

It is proposed to include additional data in the explanatory note to the annual report to more fully disclose information about human resources to external users of financial statements:

1) in section 3 “Information on affiliated persons” - data on the amount of wages and the amount of expenses aimed at advanced training as part of information on transactions with affiliated persons - members of the board of directors;

2) in section 6 “Events after the reporting date and contingent facts of economic activity” - information on human resources, including: a) a brief description of the event after the reporting date (contingent fact) and an assessment of its consequences in monetary terms on human resources. An event after the reporting date may be recognized as the cessation of a significant part of the organization’s main activities if this could not be foreseen as of the reporting date; b) the amount of the reserve written off in the reporting period in connection with the commercial organization’s fulfillment of a recognized contingent obligation; unused (excessively accrued) amount of the reserve allocated in the reporting period to non-operating income of the organization. A conditional fact of economic activity is the sale and termination of any line of activity, the closure of divisions of the organization or their relocation to another geographical region. Additionally, we propose to disclose information about human resources. Including the amount of the reserve formed in connection with the consequences of the contingent fact at the beginning and end of the reporting period;

3) in section 7 “Data on the most important reporting indicators by type of activity and geographic markets” - information on human resource costs, including wage costs and personnel training costs as part of information from operating segments;

4) in section 10 “Dynamics of the most important reporting indicators and the procedure for calculating analytical coefficients” - additional analytical information about human resources for external users of financial statements, in particular, the coefficient of employee qualifications, the coefficient of use of employee qualifications, the coefficient of use of employee specialization, the coefficient of length of service In the organisation.

An in-house regulation on strategic management accounting of human resources of a commercial organization has been developed, which includes the following sections: General provisions; Human resource assessment; Depreciation of human resources; Accounting disclosures that enable human resources to be included in strategic management accounting.

It is proposed to use management accounting accounts 31-33 to reflect human resource costs: account 31 - “Costs of acquiring human resources”, which includes the costs of hiring personnel and wages; account 32 - “Unified social tax”; account 33 - “Training costs”, which includes the costs of a commercial organization for training and retraining of personnel.

A methodology for strategic analysis of human resources has been developed and tested using the example of OJSC Ingushneftegazprom, the essence of which is that the environment of a commercial organization is studied, the competitiveness of personnel, strategies and the adequacy of the organization’s human resources to the tasks of its effective implementation are analyzed, the organization of human resource management is assessed, and also personnel work, remuneration and motivation systems, the state of internal relations, etc. Strategic analysis of human resources is carried out in the following stages: 1. Analysis of external environmental factors. 2. Analysis of personnel competitiveness 3. Analysis of the planned and actual number and statistical and analytical structure of human resources and personnel costs. 4. Analysis of the strategy and adequacy of the human resources of a commercial organization to the tasks of its effective implementation.

The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that its theoretical and methodological results have been brought to practical conclusions and recommendations used in the economic practice of a number of commercial organizations of the Republic of Ingushetia. The following developments can be applied in the economic activities of organizations:

Refined scheme for accounting wages of human resources;

An updated schedule of document flow for personnel records, use of working time and settlements with personnel for wages;

An approach to organizing management accounting of human resources in a commercial organization, allowing for the creation of an integrated system of financial, management and tax accounting;

Methodology for strategic analysis of human resources, taking into account the specifics of the activities of oil producing and oil refining enterprises.

Approbation of research results. The main provisions of the dissertation research were presented at interregional, interuniversity scientific and practical conferences held in 2002-2006. The conclusions and results of the dissertation work are used in teaching the disciplines “Accounting (Financial) Reporting”, “International Financial Reporting Standards”, “Economic Analysis in Industries”, “Accounting (Financial) Accounting” to students of Ingush State University. The results obtained are used in the process of training professional accountants at the Institutional State University Center for Advanced Studies, and can also be used in the system of certification, training and retraining of auditors. The main results of the study were implemented at the enterprises of the oil production and oil refining industry of the Republic of Ingushetia: OJSC Ingushneftegazprom, NGDU Malgobekneft, Karabulak OGDP. The author published 6 works with a total volume of 20.16 pp.

Logical structure and scope of the dissertation. The dissertation consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion, and a bibliography including 266 sources. The work contains 12 figures, 28 tables, 17 formulas and 43 applications.

Human resources as an accounting object

Thus, we are talking, on the one hand, about taking into account a number of indicators reflected in accounting indirectly (for example, the number of employees, the amount of time they worked, the amount of work performed1), and on the other hand, about reflecting in the accounting of labor costs and payables labor, the budget for personal income tax, extra-budgetary funds, etc.

In this case, the objects of accounting are deferred expenses and work in progress.

With the advent of a highly qualified and educated workforce, as well as in connection with the growth of reorganization procedures such as mergers and acquisitions, the issues of human resource accounting and their assessment are becoming more relevant. Accounting data serves as the basis for making management decisions on human resource management. In turn, the strategy and tactics of human resource management put forward requirements for the formation of accounting information in the necessary sections and perspectives. In strategic management, the concept of human resource management (HRM), which arose in the 80s of the 20th century and was transformed into the concept of strategic HRM, has become widespread. A comparative analysis of various scientists' interpretations of the concept of human resource management and the concept of strategic human resource management was carried out by us in Appendices 1-2). “Strategic human resource management” is understood as: “actions that influence the behavior of individual employees in the process of formulating and satisfying the strategic needs of the organization.” There is an interpretation according to which strategic human resource management is understood as a sustainable scheme for the planned use of human resources and actions aimed at ensuring that the company achieves its goals. All this requires the development of new approaches to accounting for human resources in accordance with the concept of strategic management.

The main emphasis in the management of foreign oil and gas companies is on the effective use of any resources and, first of all, human ones. The raw material orientation of the economy and the seemingly endless abundance of natural resources have instilled in us the habit of believing that our resources are inexhaustible and no effort is required to make their use more efficient. Human resources, like any other, are perceived in Russia as something that can be used endlessly without thinking about their improvement and development. At the same time, the ability of a commercial organization to flexibly and effectively respond to changes in the environment and constantly transform in accordance with them comes to the fore. The competitiveness of a commercial organization in the long term is largely determined by well-trained, qualified and motivated personnel.

According to R. Shagiev and N. Dyakova, the modern model of competitiveness of an oil and gas corporation is based on the principle of effective use, preservation and development of human resources.

Accounting is one of the most important functions of the management process. Without well-established accounting of human resources, it is impossible to develop and successfully implement strategies in this area. Accounting for employees of organizations and wages is an integral part of the accounting system of any modern commercial organization. However, in the context of the concept of strategic HRM, human resource accounting is a much broader concept that is not limited to labor and wage accounting. More and more scientists are inclined to think about the need to consider human resources as an asset, and not as an expense.

Due to the importance and relevance of problems related to human resources, the American Accounting Association (AAA) created the Committee on Human Resource Accounting. In 1973, this committee defined "Human resource accounting (HRA)" as "the process of identifying and evaluating human resource data and then communicating the resulting information to interested parties." American Institute of Labor (Work Institute in America, WIA),

Study of the current state of methodological support for analyzing the use of human resources of a commercial organization

The versatility and diversity of economic and production situations pose many autonomous tasks for the analysis of labor indicators. They can be solved using general and specific analytical techniques. To improve existing methods and identify advantages and disadvantages, it is necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of them.

Considering the place of human resources in the system of economic relations, it should be noted that different authors have different points of view on the system of indicators of human resources.

For example, Savitskaya G.V. determines that the volume and timeliness of all work, the efficiency of using equipment, machines, mechanisms and, as a result, the volume of production, its cost, profit and a number of other economic indicators depend on the enterprise’s supply of labor resources and the efficiency of their use. The main objectives of the analysis are to study and assess the provision of the enterprise and its structural divisions with labor resources as a whole, as well as by category and profession; determination and study of staff turnover indicators; identification of labor resource reserves and their more complete and effective use.

Professor Baronenkova S.A. determines that labor and wage analysis is focused on solving such management goals as organizing the recruitment of labor; personnel training; proper organization of work; planning of working time balance; organizing the fight against lost working time; labor standardization, control over deviations from norms; organization of wages; rational use and fight against unproductive expenses of the wage fund; labor incentive system; labor productivity, reserves for increasing it; analysis of the relationship between the growth rates of labor productivity and wages; efficient use of labor resources.

Component sections of labor force analysis: analysis of the size and composition of the workforce; analysis of working time use; labor productivity analysis; analysis of wage fund expenditure and wages; analysis of the relationship between the growth rates of labor productivity and wages; reserves for better use of labor and wage fund.

Professor Bakanov M.I. and Sheremet A.D. believe that analysis of the use of labor is an important section of the system of comprehensive economic analysis of the activities of an enterprise. The main tasks of the analysis of both labor and wages include: 1) in the field of use of labor - the study of indicators of the number, dynamics and reasons for the movement of the labor force, composition, structure, qualification level, data on the use of working time, labor intensity of products; determining the influence of the number of workers on the implementation of the production plan; 2) in the field of labor productivity - study of the achieved level of labor productivity, its dynamics; determination of intensive and extensive factors of change in labor productivity; identifying reserves for increasing labor productivity; assessment of the impact of changes in labor productivity on the implementation of the production plan; 3) in the field of use of the wage fund - assessment of the degree of validity of the applied forms and systems of remuneration; determination of the size and dynamics of average wages; research into the effectiveness of existing forms of bonuses; studying the relationship between wage growth rates and labor productivity; identifying reserves for increasing the efficiency of using funds for wages.

We have studied the approaches of various scientists used in the analysis of human resources (Appendix 18).

In the process of analyzing labor indicators, a number of special methods are used. They reflect the specificity of the analysis of labor indicators, reflecting its systemic, comprehensive nature. Systematicity in labor analysis is determined by the fact that labor processes are considered as diverse, internally complex unities, consisting of interconnected parties and elements. In the course of such an analysis, connections between parties and elements are identified and studied, and it is established how these connections, as a result of interaction, lead to the unity of the process being studied in its entirety. The systematic nature of this kind of analysis is also manifested in the combination, in the aggregate, of all specific techniques based on one’s own achievements and the achievements of a number of related sciences (mathematics, statistics, planning, management, etc.).

Currently, in the economic literature and practical activities, the following methods of analyzing labor indicators are distinguished, which can be divided into two groups: traditional and economic-mathematical (Fig. 2.1.1). The first includes those methods that have been used almost since the advent of analysis. Many mathematical methods and techniques entered the circle of analytical developments much later, with the introduction of computers.

Traditional methods for analyzing labor indicators include the use of the comparison method, the grouping method, the index method, the chain substitution method, and the balance method.

Strategic management accounting as a basis for human resource management

Strategic management accounting is the information base for strategic human resource management, which registers, summarizes and presents the data necessary for making strategic management decisions by managers of commercial organizations. The organization's strategy determines the global, long-term objectives of a commercial organization.

Any ingenious strategy must be professionally developed, transformed into a strategic decision, and only then become a guide to action for its implementation by managers and staff of the organization. There are basic principles of strategic human resource management.

The first is the principle of scientific-analytical foresight and strategy development. To develop a strategic decision, mere wishes and subjective foresight are not enough. It is necessary to analyze the previous activities of the organization, the general situation in the field of its activities and the dynamics of their changes. A forecast is also necessary, and possibly the development of scenarios for the development of the organization in the near and longer term.

The second is the principle of taking into account and coordinating external and internal factors of the organization's development. The development of an organization is determined by both external and internal factors. Strategic decisions made on the basis of taking into account the influence of only external or only internal factors will inevitably suffer from insufficient systematicity, which, in turn, will lead to erroneous decisions. But strategic decisions must be verified and effective due to their special importance, due to the fact that behind them are the directions of development and subsequent results of the activities of not only an individual, but also the organization as a whole, on which the fate of many employees depends.

The third is the principle of compliance with the strategy and tactics of managing an organization. Both a proven strategy and effective tactics are required. At the same time, success is possible only if the organization’s tactics correspond to its strategy, and the formation of the strategy takes into account the real possibilities of solving tactical problems.

The fourth is the principle of priority of the human factor. When developing a development strategy, it is necessary to understand that neither the strategy nor the tactics of an organization can be implemented if they are not perceived as a guide to action by its personnel.

In addition, the organization's personnel must have the professional skills and qualities necessary to implement strategic decisions. Therefore, one of the main tasks facing the management of the organization is the selection of personnel capable of ensuring the implementation of the adopted management decisions, and the organization of effective personnel management in order to implement the adopted strategy.

It should also be noted that the activities of a modern organization should, as a rule, be aimed at satisfying market demand generated by the consumer. This is another aspect that confirms the priority of the human factor in the activities of a modern organization.

Fifth - the principle of certainty of strategy and organization of strategic accounting and control. To ensure a clear understanding by staff of the tasks facing them, dictated by the management strategy, it is necessary that this strategy has a specific formulation and is understood unambiguously.

As you know, the practice of managing an organization is based on the principle of feedback and the adequacy of the response of the organization's management to. emerging deviations in the course of action plans adopted by the organization.

Feedback is impossible without effective accounting and control of strategic decisions made in the organization. The effectiveness of such an accounting and control system is also possible only if there are clearly formulated strategic goals and decisions.

When determining a strategy, in our opinion, it is also necessary to take into account the following principles.

The sixth is the principle of matching the organization's strategy with available resources. If the organization's strategy is not provided with resources, and by resources we mean not only raw materials, components, energy, but also personnel, information, business partners, image, etc., then the implementation of the strategy, no matter how wonderful it may be, turns out to be partially or completely impossible.

At the strategy development stage, it is not always possible to accurately assess the resources that the organization may have in the future. However, forecast estimates must necessarily take place. Only when you are confident that the resources necessary to achieve your strategic goals will be at the organization’s disposal can you begin to work on their implementation.

A logical continuation of the process of preparing financial statements will be its analysis and economic interpretation of the main reporting indicators in order to assess the financial and economic condition of the organization. The chapter presents basic algorithms for economic analysis, the information basis of which will be the organization's financial statements. A more complete description of the methods of economic analysis is presented in the specialized literature.

Analysis of financial statements consists of several stages (Fig. 22.1), while depending on the purposes of the analysis, some types of analysis may not be performed, while others, on the contrary, should be performed in more depth with the involvement of additional sources of information.

A preliminary analysis of financial statements gives an idea of ​​the quality of the information used and forms an overall assessment of the dynamics of the organization and the viability of the business.

Analysis of the financial condition of an organization is intended for an in-depth assessment of the liquidity, solvency and financial stability of the organization through assessing the liquidity of the balance sheet, establishing the type of financial stability of the organization, and calculating the operating ratios.

An analysis of financial results and business activity should assess the attractiveness of the business for owners, as well as evaluate the effectiveness of management. In this case, the quality of profit, the sources of its formation and directions of use are analyzed; The level of profitability is assessed using profitability ratios.
Do not forget that an important element of the analysis will be the assessment of cash inflows and outflows in the context of current, investment and financial activities. The material was published on http://site

Analysis of an organization's resources consists of assessing the organization's labor, material and financial resources. During the analysis process, an assessment is made of the quality and productivity of the resources used, as well as the resource intensity of the products produced.

Marketing analysis carried out based on reporting data is limited in nature and nevertheless gives grounds to draw conclusions about the competitiveness of the products and the organization itself, and to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise.

A comprehensive analysis includes an assessment of the probability of bankruptcy and the creditworthiness of an organization based on the use of current aggregated models, in which standard indicators of financial stability, profitability, and business activity of an organization can traditionally be used.

Using forecast analysis, forecast indicators of the organization's main financial documents are calculated: balance sheet, profit and loss statement and cash flow statement; Based on the calculated indicators, an assessment of the organization's long-term profitability, financial stability and liquidity is formed.

Assessing the value of an organization as a single property complex is intended to give a general assessment of the success of a business and the effectiveness of its management, the main goal of which will often be to increase the market value of organizations and, thus, increase the capital of its owners.

The final stage of the analysis will be the formation of a general assessment of the organization’s activities and the development of recommendations for improving its economic condition; recommendations should offer possible solutions to the main problems of the organization identified during the analysis.

The information support for the analysis will be the financial statements of the organization, considered as a unified system of data on the property and financial position of the organization and the results of its economic activities; the composition and content of the statements are presented in detail in Chapter. 21. Information support for the analysis carried out on the financial statements of the organization is given in table. 22.1.

Figure No. 22.1. Flowchart of analysis of financial statements

Table 22.1

Information support for analysis

Types of analysis	Accounting reporting forms
Analysis of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙiya and consistency of accounting reporting forms	Forms No. 1, 2, 3,4, 5
Express analysis of the organization	Forms No. 1, 2, 3,4, 5
Analysis of the aggregated balance sheet and income statement	Forms No. 1, 2
Horizontal and vertical analysis of the balance sheet and income statement	Forms No. 1, 2
Balance sheet liquidity analysis	Form No. 1
Analysis of solvency, liquidity and financial stability ratios	Forms No. 1, 2
Analysis of types of financial stability	Form No. 1
Equity Analysis	Forms No. 1, 2, 3
Debt Capital Analysis	Forms No. 1, 2, 5
Analysis of receivables and payables	Forms No. 1, 2, 5
Profit and Profitability Analysis	Forms No. 1, 2
Cash flow analysis (direct method)	Form No. 4
Cash flow analysis (indirect method)	Form No. 1
Tax burden analysis	Forms No. 2, 4
Business activity analysis	Forms No. 1,2
Analysis of non-current assets	Forms No. 1, 5
Analysis of fixed assets	Forms No. 1, 5
Analysis of current assets	Forms No. 1, 2
Labor and wage analysis	Forms No. 2, 5
Analysis of financial investments	Forms No. 1, 2, 5
Analysis of organizational costs and resource intensity of products	Forms No. 2, 5
Marketing analysis	Forms No. 1, 2
Bankruptcy probability analysis	Forms No. 1, 2
Analysis of the organization's creditworthiness	Forms No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Predictive Analysis	Forms No. 1, 2, 3,4, 5
Estimating the value of an organization	Forms No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Analysis of the financial condition of the organization

The purpose of financial analysis is to establish the degree of short-term and long-term solvency of the organization.
It is worth noting that the main users of the results of the analysis of the financial condition of the organization will be its creditors.

Analysis of the financial condition of an organization consists of analyzing the liquidity of the balance sheet, calculating solvency and liquidity indicators, as well as analyzing the types of financial stability. Factors determining the financial stability of an organization:

• structure of the organization’s funding sources (the more stable and long-term sources of funding, the higher the financial stability of the organization);
• structure of the organization’s property (the more non-current assets and the lower the property turnover, the higher the need for sustainable sources of financing and the lower, other things being equal, the financial stability of the organization);
• the organization's ability to generate cash flow and service obligations (the greater this ability, the higher the financial stability)

The analysis of balance sheet liquidity is based on the so-called “golden rule of financing”, which is as follows:

1. Passive is the cause, active is the effect. That is, the sources of financing attracted to the liability determine the organization’s ability to form assets. In this case, stable liabilities will be sources of financing assets with a long period of use, and short-term ones will be sources of financing liquid assets with a short period of use.
2. The timing of attracting sources of financing must exceed the timing of placing funds in assets. This means that perpetual sources (equity capital) account for non-current assets in the balance sheet, long-term liabilities for inventories, short-term loans and borrowings for receivables, and accounts payable for cash and short-term financial investments.

The essence of one of the methods for analyzing balance sheet liquidity can be presented as follows (Table 22.2)

In ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the presented methodology, non-current assets are financed along with equity capital by long-term liabilities (often long-term liabilities of organizations are founding loans, which, in fact, will also be equity capital) Financing of inventories in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲ This method is carried out at the expense of accounts payable, which is also very typical for Russian organizations, since accounts payable often represent obligations to affiliates, and financing of accounts receivable is carried out through short-term loans and borrowings.

Table 22.2

The coefficients assessing the financial stability of an organization include (Table 22.3):

1. the ratio of assets and liabilities comparable in terms of the terms of attraction (placement), for example, the ratio of liquid assets and short-term liabilities, the ratio of non-current assets and equity capital. Financial stability is ensured by the excess of liquid assets over short-term liabilities, as well as the excess of equity capital over non-current assets;
2. indicators of the structure of the balance sheet liabilities, for example, the share of equity capital or stable sources in the balance sheet currency;
3. the relationship between the organization's cash flow and its liabilities;
4. the relationship between the costs of servicing the organization’s obligations and its financial results.

Table 22.3

Solvency, liquidity and financial stability ratios

In table 22.3 uses the symbols introduced in Table. 22.2, as well as the following:
B - revenue (gross) from the sale of goods for the year;
R a - return on assets (ratio of profit before interest and income tax to the average annual value of assets), %;
i - average interest on borrowed sources.

In the process of interpreting the results obtained, it is extremely important to take into account that often successful organizations with high business performance indicators are characterized by low formal indicators of financial stability. This feature can be explained as follows: developing organizations that attract external sources of financing and invest free cash in operating assets, as a result, have low liquidity and solvency indicators. However, as long as such organizations generate a stable cash flow, they can adhere to a rather risky financing strategy, especially if the business is growing at a high rate and there are no problems with selling products.

Except for the above, often formal indicators of financial stability are underestimated due to the following factors:

• founder's loans, which from a formal position will be obligations, in fact, represent stable sources of financing;
• accounts payable to affiliates can also be considered as a stable source of financing, although formally it is the most risky source of financing;
• advances received during the normal functioning of the organization can be considered as sustainable sources of financing

Since, in accordance with the law, the value of the net assets of a joint stock company should not be less than its authorized capital, an analysis of the ratio of the value of net assets and authorized capital is of particular interest. The calculation of the value of net assets is currently carried out in accordance with the “Procedure for assessing the value of net assets of joint stock companies”:

where A are the organization’s assets,
Zv - debt of participants (founders) on contributions to the authorized capital;
О d - long-term liabilities;
O kz - short-term liabilities for loans and credits;
3 kr - accounts payable,
Z ud - debt to participants (founders) for payment of income;
RPR - reserves for future expenses;
O pr - other short-term liabilities.

Factor analysis of changes in net asset value is carried out using the formula:

where K y - authorized capital;
A - own shares purchased from shareholders;
K d - additional capital,
K r - reserve capital,
P n - retained profit;
U n - uncovered loss;
3 uv - debt of participants (founders) on contributions to the authorized capital;
DBP - deferred income.

In the process of analyzing NAV, it is also extremely important to pay attention to the following ratios (Table 22.4 shows them for joint stock companies in accordance with the Federal Law “On Joint Stock Companies”)

Table 22.4

Relationships related to the NAV value (for joint stock companies)

Ratio	Characteristic
The difference between the value of the company's net assets and its authorized capital	The maximum amount of losses and withdrawals that the company can withstand before having to reduce the authorized capital (Article 35)
The difference between the value of the company's net assets and the amount of the company's authorized capital and reserve fund	Potential possibility of increasing the authorized capital at the expense of property (Article 28)
The difference between the value of the company's net assets and the amount of the authorized capital, the company's reserve fund and the excess of the liquidation value of the issued preferred shares over the nominal value determined by the company's charter	Potential ability to pay dividends (Article 43)
	Potential opportunity of a company to acquire shares (Article 73)
10% of the value of the company's net assets	The maximum amount of funds allocated by the company for the repurchase of shares (Article 76)

Analysis of financial results and business activity of the organization

The purpose of this analysis will be to assess the attractiveness of the business from the standpoint of the feasibility of investing in it, as well as to assess the effectiveness of the organization's management. The primary users of the analysis results will be the owners and management.

Analysis of profit and profitability indicators is one of the ways to assess the investment attractiveness of an organization and determine how promising the business is.

The main factors determining the level of profit of the organization will be the following.

• Competitiveness of manufactured products, allowing to maintain sales volume and price at an acceptable level.
• The quality and productivity of the organization’s labor and material resources and their costs.
• The level of costs for financing the organization.
• Motivation of owners and staff.

It is quite clear that it is impossible to make a full analysis of profit and the factors that determine it based on financial statements, because the content of the analysis is determined by the availability of available sources of information.

An analysis of an organization's profit should begin with an analysis of profit before tax, which is formed from three sources:

1. revenue from sales;
2. operating result;
3. non-realization result.

In order to determine the main reasons for changes in profit before tax, it is advisable to conduct a factor analysis using the following formula:

where ΔП is the increase in profit before tax;
ΔPp - increase in profit from sales;
ΔPo - increase in operating result;
ΔРв - increase in non-operating result.

When assessing the results of calculations, it is extremely important to take into account that the main factor in the growth of profit before tax should be profit from sales.

For a full analysis of the use of profit, financial statements are clearly not enough, because the profit shown in the balance sheet at the end of the reporting period will, in fact, not be undistributed, since the decision on the distribution of profit is usually made by the participants after reporting. The analysis can be carried out using comparisons between the net profit earned by the organization in the reporting year and the increase in retained earnings in the balance sheet. If the increase in profit in the balance sheet is less than the amount of profit earned, then ϶ᴛᴏ indicates the use of part of the profit. Except for the above, information on the use of profits is contained in Form No. 3, which shows information on the transfer of profits to the reserve fund and dividends.

In the process of assessing the rationality of dividend policy, it is extremely important to take into account, in particular, the following factors:

• the organization’s availability of liquid resources: the more of them, the greater the organization’s ability to pay dividends. In this case, it must be taken into account that the presence of profit does not guarantee the presence of a large cash balance;
• the degree of financial stability of the organization: if the organization has an unstable financial condition, then the profit earned and retained in the organization can improve its financial condition;
• the presence of highly profitable projects among the management of the organization: if they exist, it is obvious that a significant part of the profit should remain in the organization;
• level of return on equity: if it exceeds the average market percentage, then it is more profitable for participants to leave profits in the organization;
• control structure: strategic owners are traditionally interested in not paying out profits as dividends, while small retail investors, on the contrary, are interested in current income received in the form of dividends.

A logical continuation of the overall assessment of the organization’s profitability will be an analysis of its business portfolio. Business portfolio analysis usually refers to the analysis of products produced by an organization. This analysis is feasible if Form No. 2 shows breakdowns of revenue and cost of goods sold by product.

For a full analysis of the business portfolio, management accounting data and marketing information are required; if the analysis is carried out according to financial statements, then the main indicators will be the structure of revenue and profit in the context of manufactured products, the dynamics of revenue and profit in the context of manufactured products, as well as gross margin (the ratio of gross profit for a particular type of product to total revenue) During the assessment process of the obtained results, it is necessary to evaluate the degree of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙiya of the specific weights of products and their profitability, i.e. Highly profitable products should have a higher share in total revenue, and vice versa. Except for the above, it is worth paying attention to the degree of diversification of revenue in the context of manufactured products. The results of the analysis can be presented in terms of the “Boston matrix”, i.e. highlight star products (high growth rate with high margins), cow products (low growth rate with high margins), children's products (high growth rate with low margins), dog products (low growth rate with low margins)

To assess the level of profitability of an organization, profitability indicators can be used, among which three groups of indicators deserve special attention: firstly, indicators of profitability of sales, the purpose of which is to assess the profitability of manufactured products, secondly, indicators of return on assets, by which one can judge the efficiency of use assets and the creditworthiness of the organization, thirdly, indicators of return on equity capital, which characterize the investment attractiveness of the organization.

The calculation of profitability indicators is carried out using the following formulas.

Return on sales (margin):

where Pv is gross profit (calculation of margin through gross profit is more accurate than any other, since in this case the indicator is not distorted by the distribution of indirect costs);
B - revenue (net) from the sale of goods.

Return on assets:

where Pd is profit before interest and income tax;
A is the average annual value of assets.

Return on equity:

where Pch is the net profit of the reporting period;
Ks is the average annual value of equity capital.

When interpreting your results, it is extremely important to consider the following:

• the dynamics of sales profitability (margin) indirectly demonstrates the dynamics of product competitiveness: an increase in product profitability in the presence of an increase in sales volume indicates an increase in the competitiveness of products, and due to factors such as quality and service in customer service, and not the price factor;
• the level of return on assets demonstrates the degree of creditworthiness of the organization: an organization is creditworthy if the return on its assets exceeds the percentage of attracted financial resources;
• the level of return on equity demonstrates the investment attractiveness of the organization: return on equity must exceed the return on alternative investments with a comparable level of risk. It is worth saying that to assess the quality of management, indicators of business activity can be used, which characterize the speed of converting the organization’s assets into cash.

The analysis of business activity is presented by turnover ratios, turnover period indicators and consolidation ratios; when calculating turnover indicators, indicators of the value of assets and revenue (expenses) are compared; in this case, the values ​​of assets should be taken in the average annual assessment, however, in order to analyze the dynamics of turnover indicators (especially when analyzing financial statements for one year), you can use the values ​​of assets at the beginning in the calculations and the end of the year (comparing them directly with revenue (expenses) for the previous and reporting years) Asset turnover ratios show the speed at which assets are converted into money, the turnover period characterizes the duration of one turnover of assets, and the consolidation coefficient demonstrates the amount of assets required to obtain 1 rub. revenue.

The analysis of factors influencing the business activity of an organization deserves special attention. It is worth noting that they can be grouped as follows.

• Asset structure: the greater the share of non-current assets, the lower the asset turnover indicators.
• The presence of non-performing assets: the more there are, the lower the asset turnover.
• Scheme for the purchase of raw materials and materials: the larger the size of the imported batches, the greater the amount of operating reserves and the lower their turnover.
• Duration of the production process: the longer it is, the lower the turnover of work-in-process inventory.
• Product competitiveness: the higher it is, the higher the inventory turnover of finished products.
• The solvency of buyers and the terms of supply of products affect the duration of the turnover of receivables: the higher the solvency of buyers, the better the indicators of turnover of receivables.

Calculation of turnover indicators is carried out using the following formulas:

Current assets turnover ratio:

where B is revenue from the sale of goods;
OA is the average annual value of current assets.

Inventory turnover ratio:

where C is the cost of goods sold;
3 - average annual cost of inventories.

Accounts receivable turnover ratio:

where DZ is the average annual amount of accounts receivable.

Inventory turnover period:

Receivables turnover period (collection period):

Fastening factor:

Receivables consolidation ratio:

Organizational resource analysis

The purpose of analyzing the organization's resources will be to assess their availability, dynamics, quality, productivity (profitability), incl. material, labor and financial resources.
It is worth noting that the main users of the results of this analysis will be the managers of the organization at all its levels.

Analysis of non-current assets is necessary to assess the production capabilities of the organization and the prospects for its development. It is the value of non-current assets that largely determines the most important economic characteristic of an organization - its production capacity, and in comparison with the actual volume of production - the degree of use of production capacity. It is impossible to assess the production capacity of an organization based on financial statements; the dynamics of the capacity utilization rate can be assessed by comparing the rate of increase in the value of non-current assets (especially fixed assets) with the dynamics of revenue; if revenue grows at a higher rate, then, most likely, the utilization of production capacity increases.

The general analysis of non-current assets consists of assessing the following indicators:

• dynamics of non-current assets (the growth rate should be less than the growth rate of revenue);
• structure of non-current assets (for an enterprise in the real sector of the economy, fixed assets should prevail);
• the degree of freedom in the use of non-current assets;
• factor analysis of the growth of non-current assets.

When assessing the presence and structure of non-current assets, it is extremely important to pay attention to the characteristic features of the analysis of various types of non-current assets.

1. Intangible assets. The importance of this type of assets (especially intellectual property) increases with the development of a market economy; The presence of intangible assets in the form of patents, licenses, and trademarks deserves a positive assessment, since intellectual property in modern conditions is of increasing importance for business. Problems in the analysis of these assets are associated primarily with the difficulty of obtaining an adequate assessment of the efficiency of using intangible assets, as well as assessing their value, which is subject to significant fluctuations.
2. Fixed assets. For an enterprise in the real sector of the economy, this is the main element of non-current assets; the presence of fixed assets is evidence of the reliability and long-term nature of the business. Analysis of fixed assets necessarily includes an assessment of their condition, efficiency of use, as well as structure in terms of active and passive parts.
3. Construction in progress. The presence of this element of non-current assets, on the one hand, indicates the investment activity of the organization, and positively characterizes the organization as developing its production and technical base and having the means to finance its development. But on the other hand, this is evidence of its losses due to the presence of non-performing assets, which are extremely important to finance with our own or attracted sources. During the analysis process, it is extremely important to assess the structure of unfinished construction in terms of the following components:
   • acquisition of land plots and environmental management facilities;
   • construction of fixed assets;
   • acquisition of fixed assets;
   • acquisition of intangible assets, etc.

   An obligatory element of the analysis of construction in progress will be an assessment of the period during which assets remain part of construction in progress.

4. Long-term financial investments. During the analysis process, it is extremely important to take into account that the purpose of making long-term financial investments will be to make a profit and acquire control over other organizations. Therefore, the presence of long-term financial investments in the form of contributions to the authorized capitals of subsidiaries and dependent organizations indicates that the organization operates as part of a group of organizations, which makes the business more sustainable and competitive. In this regard, it is necessary to take into account that the cost of investments does not in any way characterize the size of the organizations in whose authorized capital the analyzed organization participates.
5. Profitable investments in material assets. It is worth saying that for an enterprise in the real sector of the economy, the presence of these assets can be assessed in two ways: on the one hand, it is evidence of the diversion of funds from core activities, and on the other hand, it is a sign of diversification of assets and income, which generally increases the reliability of the organization.
6. Deferred tax assets. Since the presence of these assets leads to an increase in the current income tax in the reporting period, the presence of deferred tax assets is not entirely beneficial to the organization.

In addition to assessing the composition of non-current assets, calculating indicators of structure and dynamics when analyzing non-current assets, it is advisable to analyze the extent to which the organization has control over non-current assets. In particular, from the Appendix to the balance sheet (reference to the “Fixed Assets” section of Form No. 5) you can obtain data on depreciable property leased, property pledged, as well as fixed assets transferred for conservation. It is worth saying that useful information about the property that an organization uses under a lease agreement is contained in a certificate of the availability of valuables recorded in off-balance sheet accounts.

In the process of analyzing non-current assets, special attention should be paid to fixed assets. Information from form No. 5 is used as the initial data for the analysis, on the basis of which it is possible to analyze fixed assets in the context of their natural material structure, as well as in the context of their active (directly affecting the value of production capacity) and passive parts. Natural material structure of fixed assets:

• building;
• structures;
• cars and equipment;
• vehicles;
• inventory, etc.

In the process of analysis, it is extremely important to pay attention to fixed assets leased by the organization, which increases its production capabilities, and fixed assets leased, which reduces its production capabilities (sources of information - Certificate of availability of valuables recorded on off-balance sheet accounts and form No. 5)

When assessing the dynamics of fixed assets, it is extremely important to compare the growth rate of property with the growth rate of financial results, the growth of which, of course, should be higher. The lack of growth of fixed assets with a significant increase in financial results may be a consequence of the depreciation of fixed assets, the transition to leased fixed assets, in addition, most likely indicates an increase in the efficiency of their use.

Analysis of the state of fixed assets is of particular importance for the analysis of the organization, since it indirectly characterizes the long-term goals of the owners, i.e. shows whether the owners are seeking to obtain short-term profit (this is evidenced by the lack of investment in non-current assets and especially in fixed assets) or are aimed at the long term (a sign of which will be an active investment policy) Indicators of the condition of fixed assets, especially the commissioning ratio, which characterizes the investment activity of the organization , largely determine the future state of the organization’s production potential, the competitiveness of its products and, in general, the dynamics of production volume. For this reason, in the analysis process it is extremely important to pay special attention to the volume and structure of investments made in the organization, namely the volume and structure of the receipt of fixed assets.

Indicators of the state of fixed assets are calculated according to the data in the “Fixed Assets” section of Form No. 5 using the following formulas.

Fixed asset commissioning ratio:

where OSvv is the cost of introduced fixed assets;
OSk is the initial cost of fixed assets at the end of the year.

Fixed asset retirement ratio:

where OSv is the cost of retired fixed assets;
OSn - the initial cost of fixed assets at the beginning of the year.

Average depreciation rate:

where Ar is the annual depreciation value of fixed assets;
OSP - the average annual initial cost of fixed assets.

Depreciation rate of fixed assets (calculated at the beginning and end of the year):

where ΣА is the total accrued depreciation of fixed assets at the beginning or end of the year,
OSP - the initial cost of fixed assets ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙat the beginning or end of the year.

Serviceability coefficient of fixed assets (calculated at the beginning and end of the year):

where OСo is the residual value of fixed assets at the beginning or end of the year.

In the process of interpreting the results obtained, you can use the following inequality, which is true for an organization carrying out expanded reproduction with a decreasing level of depreciation of fixed assets:

An excess of the retirement rate over the average depreciation rate indicates that the write-off depreciation exceeds the accrued one, which leads to a decrease in the level of depreciation of fixed assets. The excess of the entry rate over the retirement rate obviously leads to expanded reproduction. A comprehensive assessment of the condition of fixed assets is, of course, given by wear and serviceability coefficients. The threshold value of these coefficients can be considered 50%; if wear exceeds this level, then the condition of fixed assets can be assessed as not good enough. The dynamics of these coefficients is very indicative - a decrease in the level of wear and tear characterizes the organization positively, and vice versa.

The assessment of indicators of the condition of fixed assets largely depends on the degree of reliability of their assessment. In this case, it is extremely important to take into account that the adequacy of the assessment of fixed assets will affect their input coefficients. Thus, if fixed assets are undervalued, the calculated input coefficients will be higher, and the conclusions will be more optimistic than the actual state of affairs. And, conversely, an overvaluation of fixed assets leads to an underestimation of the commissioning ratio.

Of particular interest are indicators that evaluate the characteristics of the state of fixed assets from the perspective of timing. In particular, the following indicators.

Average standard useful life of fixed assets:

Average remaining useful life of fixed assets:

where OSo is the average annual residual value of fixed assets.

Average actual useful life of fixed assets:

Average period for complete renewal of fixed assets:

Average period for complete disposal of fixed assets:

To assess the relationship between the time characteristics of the state of fixed assets, you can use the inequality:

This inequality demonstrates the fact that the economic life of fixed assets should be shorter than their standard useful life, which is usually characteristic of successful developing organizations. It is worth saying that for organizations experiencing financial difficulties, on the contrary, it is typical that the economic life of fixed assets exceeds their standard useful life, which leads to the operation of fully depreciated fixed assets.

Indicators of the efficiency of use of fixed assets reflect the ratio of the obtained financial results of the organization and the fixed assets used to achieve these results.
It is worth noting that the main indicators assessing the efficiency of use of fixed assets will be capital productivity and profitability of fixed assets.

Capital productivity is calculated using the formula:

Return on fixed assets is the ratio of profit from sales to the cost of fixed assets:

where Pp is profit from sales.

It is important to note that one of the essential aspects of the analysis of the use of fixed assets will be the calculation of revenue increases received from extensive and intensive factors characterizing fixed assets. The influence of extensive factors, which characterize the quantitative aspect of fixed assets, is assessed using the formula:

where ФОо - capital productivity of fixed assets in the previous period

The influence of intensive factors, which characterize the qualitative aspect of fixed assets and evaluate the efficiency of their use per unit of time, is calculated using the formula:

where FO 1 is the capital productivity of fixed assets in the reporting period

In the process of interpreting the results obtained, it is extremely important to take into account that the indicators of the use of fixed assets depend on the reliability of their assessment: if fixed assets are undervalued, then the indicators of the efficiency of their use will be overestimated.

Another type of economic resources of the organization will be working capital (current assets), which also affects its production capabilities, and at the same time, current assets, characterized by a higher level of liquidity than other types of material resources, largely determine the degree of liquidity and financial stability of the organization itself. organizations. Therefore, the analysis of current assets allows us to clarify conclusions about the financial stability of an organization based on an analysis of the composition, structure and financing strategy of current assets. It is advisable to begin the analysis of current assets with a preliminary analysis, during which the degree of security of the organization at the disposal of current assets is established, which may be limited by the pledge of current assets (information about this is shown in the “Securities” section of Form No. 5) Except for the above, at the preliminary stage analysis, receivables for which payments are expected more than 12 months after the reporting date may be excluded from current assets for the purpose of their analysis.

In the process of analyzing current assets, it is advisable to consider their dynamics in comparison with the dynamics of revenue and four options for their structure. The information base for the analysis of current assets will be forms No. 1 and No. 5.

1. Structure of current assets by elements. Elements of current assets - ϶ᴛᴏ:

• inventories and VAT on purchased assets;
• accounts receivable;
• short-term financial investments and cash.

To justify the indicators of the optimal structure of current assets, you can use restrictions on liquidity ratios, namely: restrictions on the absolute liquidity ratio (0.2), intermediate liquidity (0.7), current liquidity (2) Based on these ratios, the share of inventories and VAT in the structure of current assets is 65%, the share of accounts receivable is 25%, the share of short-term financial investments and cash is 10%.

2. Structure of current assets by liquidity.

From a liquidity perspective, current assets can be divided into:

• illiquid assets (costs in work in progress, deferred expenses, value added tax, accounts receivable, payments for which are expected more than 12 months after the reporting date, advances issued);
• liquid assets (raw materials, supplies and other similar assets, finished products and goods for resale, goods shipped, other inventories and costs, accounts receivable, payments for which are expected within 12 months (except for advances issued), other current assets);
• highly liquid assets (short-term financial investments, cash)

As for the optimal structure of current assets according to this criterion, it seems that illiquid assets should not exceed 30-40% of the amount of current assets, liquid assets should be 50-60%, and highly liquid assets should be approximately 10%.

3. Structure of current assets by area.

Current assets, completing a circuit, move from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production and then again to the sphere of circulation in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the formula:

Current assets located in the sphere of production are called working capital assets, they include:

• stocks of raw materials, materials and other material assets;
• costs in work in progress;
• Future expenses;
• value added tax on purchased assets.

Current assets in the sphere of circulation are circulation funds:

• finished products and goods for resale;
• goods shipped;
• accounts receivable;
• short-term financial investments;
• cash.

4. Structure of current assets according to standardization.

Taking into account the dependence on the degree of normalization, normalized working capital is distinguished, namely: stocks of raw materials, supplies and other similar assets, costs in work in progress, finished products. Non-standardized current assets include: deferred expenses, other inventories and expenses, value added tax, accounts receivable, short-term financial investments, cash, and other current assets.

In the process of assessing the results of the analysis, it is extremely important to compare the growth rate of the components of current assets with the growth rate of revenue. It is possible to assume that there are problems in an organization if the growth rate of current assets exceeds the growth rate of revenue. For example, if inventories of raw materials are increasing at a higher rate than revenue, then ϶ᴛᴏ may be a sign of the presence of excess inventories, an increase in the material intensity of products, a significant increase in prices for raw materials (exceeding the general increase in prices), as well as inefficient operation of the supply service. An excessive increase in costs in work in progress may indicate problems in production, excessive downtime, or disruption of the production cycle. As for inventories of finished products, their excessive growth will be the first sign of a decrease in the competitiveness of products, which in the future may lead to a drop in sales volumes and a decline in financial results.

To analyze the efficiency of using current assets, indicators of business activity or turnover can be used (given in § 22.3 of this chapter), in addition, you can calculate the profitability indicator of current assets and do a factor analysis of this indicator.

Return on current assets is equal to:

where Pp is profit from sales;
OA is the average annual value of the value of current assets.

The next stage of analyzing the efficiency of using current assets, similar to the analysis of fixed assets, will be the calculation of revenue increases received from extensive and intensive factors characterizing current assets. The influence of extensive factors, which characterize the quantitative aspect of current assets, is assessed using the formula:

where k 0 is the turnover ratio of current assets in the previous period;
OAK - the value of current assets at the end of the year,
OAn - the value of current assets at the beginning of the year.

The influence of intensive factors, which characterize the qualitative aspect of current assets and evaluate the efficiency of their use per unit of time, is calculated using the formula:

where k 1 is the value of the turnover ratio for the reporting period

As sources of financing current assets, an organization can use its own working capital (the most stable and expensive source), long-term and short-term loans and borrowings, as well as accounts payable. In the process of analysis, the specific weights of the listed sources are established, and the value of the sources is also compared with the value of the individual components of current assets. When assessing the results of the analysis of the financing strategy, it is necessary to indicate the main source of financing for current assets. It is worth saying that in order to assess the degree of riskiness of a strategy for financing current assets, it is necessary to compare the value of stable sources of financing (own working capital and long-term liabilities) with the value of the organization’s reserves in the amount of VAT on purchased assets. The financing strategy can be considered quite reliable if the reserves are financed by stable sources, if the organization finances current assets mainly with accounts payable, then such a strategy will be high-risk and low-cost. In this case, it is necessary to take into account possible distortions of the real picture of financing due to a number of factors. Thus, the owners of an organization can finance it not only with their own capital, but also provide it with founding loans, financial assistance (demonstrated under the item “Deferred income”), in addition, accounts payable can represent the organization’s debts to affiliates. All these factors lead to the fact that, in fact, the strategy for financing current assets may be less risky than it follows from formal analysis. Although, on the other hand, equity items can also be inflated due to inadequate, overvalued assets, the presence of illiquid inventories, and unrealistic accounts receivable for collection. All this once again emphasizes the limitations of the analysis conducted on the basis of financial statements and the need to attract additional information to obtain adequate results.

A resource, the analysis of which according to financial statements is practically impossible, will be the organization’s labor resources.
It is worth noting that the main goal of this analysis is to assess labor productivity and the effectiveness of the labor motivation system and, in general, the effectiveness of personnel management.

The analysis consists of calculating labor productivity indicators, factor analysis of labor efficiency indicators and comparing the growth rates of labor productivity and wages. It is worth saying that two indicators can be used to assess labor productivity - the ratio of sales revenue to the number of employees and the ratio of added value to the number of employees.

Labor productivity calculated through sales revenue:

Labor productivity calculated through added value:

where MZ is material costs

At the same time, the second indicator, of course, more accurately demonstrates the contribution of the enterprise’s employees to the creation of new value, since it excludes the factor of acquired values ​​- material resources - from the assessment of labor efficiency.

Just as in the analysis of fixed assets and current assets, it is extremely important to calculate the increase in revenue received from extensive and intensive factors characterizing personnel. The influence of extensive factors that characterize the number of employees is assessed using the formula:

where PTo is labor productivity in the previous period;
Ch 1 - number of employees in the reporting period;
H 0 - number of employees in the previous period.

The influence of intensive factors that characterize labor productivity is calculated using the formula:

where PT 1 is labor productivity in the reporting period.

Indicators for analyzing the effectiveness of labor costs (salary productivity) are formed as the ratio between the financial results of the organization (revenue, added value, profit) and labor costs. Salary productivity indicators can also be interpreted as indicators assessing the effectiveness of the personnel motivation system, because if the motivation system is effective, then wage growth will be accompanied by higher growth in financial results. Salary indicators:

where ZOT is labor costs.

where DS is added value.

where Pp is profit from sales.

It should be noted that salary productivity is a particular indicator for assessing the effectiveness of labor costs, because labor costs are not only wages, but also other expenses of the organization, in particular, bonuses, social expenses of the organization (payment for rest, treatment), expenses, related to the maintenance of employees (clothing, food, vacation pay, severance pay), costs of hiring, training, education of personnel, tax expenses related to remuneration of personnel, other expenses. More general indicators for assessing the effectiveness of labor costs will be calculated as the ratio of financial results to labor costs.

It seems appropriate to complete the analysis of the organization's resources with an analysis of the resource intensity of the product. Calculation of resource intensity according to financial statements is made on the basis of revenue, i.e. resource intensity characterizes how much it is extremely important for an organization to spend resources in monetary terms per 1 ruble. revenue (net) In other words, many resource intensity indicators are indicators of the share of resource costs in revenue, i.e. revenue structure indicators. Resource intensity characterizes the degree of controllability of expenses by the organization's management. The stability of cost control indicators (fluctuations do not exceed 10% of the base level) indicates that the likelihood of an uncontrolled increase in the organization’s costs is small, therefore, fluctuations in profit are unlikely, and this is already one of the properties of high-quality profit.

Indicators of resource intensity of products are calculated using formulas, some of which are constructed as the ratio of resource costs by element to revenue (material intensity, salary intensity), others - as the ratio of the cost of resources to revenue (capital intensity)

Material consumption:

where MZ is material costs;
B - revenue from the sale of goods.

Salary intensity (when calculating indicators, it is possible to add contributions for social needs to labor costs):

where ZP is the sum of labor costs and contributions for social needs.

Depreciation capacity:

where Ar is annual depreciation charges.

Resource intensity for other costs:

where Zpr - other costs.

Capital intensity:

where OS is the average annual residual value of fixed assets.

Total resource intensity of products:

where 3 is total costs (expenses for ordinary activities)

The relationship between the total resource intensity of products and profitability of sales can be expressed by the following relationship:

where Rnp is return on sales.

When assessing the results of calculations, you should pay attention to the dynamics of resource intensity indicators associated with “tax-intensive” cost elements. It is worth saying that the negative dynamics of resource intensity indicators deserve a positive assessment, since the consequence of such dynamics will be an increase in profitability of sales. A decrease in wage intensity simultaneously with an increase in material intensity may indicate that the organization has changed technology in the direction of reducing the added value created.
From one point of view, ϶ᴛᴏ negatively characterizes production and can be regarded as its degradation, and on the other hand, the development of an outsourcing system, the manifestation of which is recorded in the financial statements precisely as a decrease in added value, will be a completely progressive sign of business development.

Comprehensive methods for analyzing an organization

Complex analysis techniques involve the use of models formed on the basis of particular analysis indicators in order to obtain a given characteristic of an organization, in particular, to assess the likelihood of its bankruptcy.

First of all, the analysis of the probability of bankruptcy is based on official methods: “Methodological provisions for assessing the financial condition of enterprises and establishing an unsatisfactory balance sheet structure” (approved by the Order of the Federal Fund for Financial Affairs dated August 12, 1994 No. 31-r), “Methodological recommendations for conducting an examination of the existence of (absence of) signs of fictitious or deliberate bankruptcy” (approved by the Order of the Federal Service for Social Security of Russia dated October 8, 1999 No. 33-r)

The first method contains the calculation of the current liquidity ratios, the provision of own funds and the restoration (loss) of solvency.

Current ratio (must be equal to or greater than 2):

where OA is the organization’s current assets;
KO - short-term liabilities;
DBP - future income;
RPR - reserves for future expenses.

Own funds ratio (must be equal to or greater than 0.1):

where KS is the organization’s own capital;
VA - non-current assets.

If at least one of the coefficients does not meet the standard values ​​(the first is less than 2, the second is less than 0.1), the balance sheet structure is recognized as unsatisfactory, and the enterprise is considered insolvent. In this case, the solvency restoration coefficient is calculated:

where k tl is the actual value of the current liquidity ratio at the end of the reporting period;
Δk tl - increase in the liquidity ratio for the period between the beginning and end of the reporting period;
6 - period for restoration of solvency (equal to six months);
T - duration of the reporting period in months.

An organization has the opportunity to restore solvency if the value of the solvency restoration coefficient is greater than one.

The coefficient of loss of solvency is calculated if both first coefficients satisfy the standard values:

where k y is the coefficient of loss of solvency;
3 - period of loss of solvency (equal to three months)

An organization has the opportunity to lose solvency if the value of the loss of solvency coefficient is less than one.

The presented methodology has one significant drawback, which is that often successful, financially stable organizations analyzed using this method are classified as having an unsatisfactory balance sheet structure and insolvent. This is due to the fact that the methodology specifies a very strict current liquidity ratio (equal to or greater than 2), the normative value of which is not available to most Russian organizations.

The second technique involves examining the organization for signs of fictitious and deliberate bankruptcy. It is worth saying that to analyze the signs of fictitious bankruptcy, an indicator of the security of the debtor’s short-term obligations with its current assets is used:

where OA" - current assets adjusted for the degree of liquidity (insufficiently liquid assets are reduced to their market value);
VAT - value added tax on purchased assets;
Vsh - the amount of recognized fines, penalties and other financial (economic) sanctions.

A sign of fictitious bankruptcy will be the presence of the debtor's ability to satisfy the creditors' demands in full on the date the debtor applies to the arbitration court with an application to declare him insolvent (bankrupt). That is, if the coefficient value exceeds one, signs of fictitious bankruptcy are seen, since there is a possibility in full pay off short-term obligations.

To analyze the signs of deliberate bankruptcy, three indicators are calculated.

The first of them is the ratio of the organization’s liabilities to be covered by all its assets:

where B" is the balance sheet currency adjusted for the degree of liquidity of assets (insufficiently liquid assets are reduced to their market value);
Rorg - organizational expenses;
O - long-term and short-term liabilities.

The second indicator of the methodology for analyzing the signs of deliberate bankruptcy is the ratio of the security of the organization’s obligations with its current assets:

The third indicator is the value of net assets (its calculation is given in § 22.2 of the ϶ᴛᴏth chapter)

A sign of deliberate bankruptcy will be a significant deterioration in the listed indicators. Except for the above, when examining the signs of deliberate bankruptcy, the conditions of transactions that could lead to the bankruptcy of the organization are analyzed. If it is established that the security of creditors' claims has deteriorated and transactions made by the debtor do not comply with existing market conditions, norms and customs of business, signs of deliberate bankruptcy are seen.

In the process of interpreting the results obtained, it is worth basing conclusions on the results of calculations using the second method, since it is more compatible with modern Russian conditions.

In addition to state methods for assessing the likelihood of bankruptcy, there are numerous proprietary methods that operate on a much wider range of indicators and, in general, should be more adequate to achieve the goal. At the same time, the disadvantage of the mentioned methods is that some of them, namely foreign methods (in particular, the well-known model of E. Altman), do not fully meet Russian specifics in terms of quantitative values ​​of parameters. Russian methods cannot be considered completely adequate, since the algorithms for constructing these models, which involve the use of a large volume of statistical data, have not been fully developed due to sudden changes in the operating conditions of Russian enterprises and the short-term existence of the market economy itself in Russia.

E. Altman's model, designed to predict the probability of bankruptcy, is a multifactor regression equation of the following form:

where K 1 is the ratio of earnings before interest and tax to the value of assets;
K 2 - the ratio of proceeds from the sale to the value of assets;
K 3 - the ratio of equity capital (in market valuation) to liabilities;
K 4 - the ratio of retained earnings to the value of assets;
K 5 - the ratio of own working capital to the value of assets.

At Z 2.9 there is a low probability of bankruptcy.

As can be seen from the presented relationship, signs of bankruptcy can be not only problems with liquidity, but also insufficient efficiency of the organization, in particular, low profitability and business activity.

Analysis of the probability of bankruptcy using the method of R.S. Saifulina and G.G. Kadykova suggests determining the rating number in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙi with the following dependence:

where K 1 is the ratio of own working capital to current assets;
K 2 - the ratio of current assets to short-term liabilities;
K 3 - the ratio of revenue to the value of assets;
K 4 - the ratio of net profit to revenue;
K 5 - the ratio of net profit to equity.

To establish the degree of probability of bankruptcy, a rule is used: if the rating number exceeds one, then bankruptcy is unlikely, and vice versa, if the number is less than one, then the probability of bankruptcy is significant.

The presented methodology also examines the causes of bankruptcy of organizations more broadly than government methods, pointing out among them low efficiency.

Control questions

1. What is the content of the analysis carried out on the basis of the organization’s financial statements? What is the information basis for the main types of analysis?
2. What is the analysis of the financial condition of an organization? Justify the main factors of the financial stability of the organization.
3. Describe the methodology for analyzing balance sheet liquidity. How are deficits and surpluses calculated? What recommendations can be given based on the results of the balance sheet liquidity analysis?
4. What are the main liquidity ratios of an organization? What could be the reason for insufficient and excess liquidity of an organization? What problems may an organization encounter if there is insufficient liquidity? Excess liquidity?
5. Explain the algorithm for calculating and analyzing the value of an organization's net assets. Why is one formula used to calculate NAV, and another for their factor analysis? What decisions of a joint stock company are related to the value of net assets?
6. What is the analysis of profit and profitability of an organization? What factors determine the amount of profit?
7. Explain the purpose and algorithm for analyzing the organization's business portfolio. How can you characterize the products produced by an organization in terms of the “Boston matrix”?
8. What are the main profitability indicators? For what purposes can they be used? How can you assess the creditworthiness and investment attractiveness of an organization based on profitability indicators?
9. What are the main indicators of business activity? What factors determine the business activity of an organization?
10. What is the analysis of organizational resources? How can you assess the composition of an organization's non-current assets?
11. What is fixed assets analysis? What are the components of the natural material structure of fixed assets? What is the active and passive part of fixed assets? What is the analysis of the degree of waste in the use of fixed assets?
12. What is the algorithm for calculating indicators of the condition of fixed assets? How can you interpret the results of calculations of indicators of the condition of fixed assets?
13. How are fixed asset utilization indicators calculated? How to calculate the increase in revenue received from extensive and intensive factors characterizing fixed assets?
14. In what aspects is the structure of current assets analyzed? How to justify the optimal indicators of the structure of current assets in the context of their elements? Explain how the liquidity structure of current assets affects the liquidity of the organization as a whole.
15. How can one assess the relationship between the growth rate of labor productivity and the growth rate of wages? How to evaluate the effectiveness of labor costs?
16. What characterize indicators of resource intensity of products? How do they relate to resource performance metrics?
17. What official methods allow you to analyze the likelihood of bankruptcy? What indicators can be used by government methods to analyze the likelihood of bankruptcy?
18. In what case is the solvency recovery ratio calculated? insolvency ratio? How to determine whether an organization has the ability to restore solvency?
19. How are the signs of fictitious bankruptcy established? What are the signs of deliberate bankruptcy? How are indicators of asset coverage of liabilities calculated?
20. What proprietary methods exist for determining the probability of bankruptcy? What indicators do the author’s methods use to assess the likelihood of bankruptcy? What are the disadvantages of the author's methods?

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